Writing and Proofing

Background Information on Writing and Proofing

Purposes of Writing and Proofing Strategies

Advantages of Writing and Proofing Strategies

Specific Writing and Proofing Strategies

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BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON WRITING AND PROOFING

Writing is a common requirement on the job and in post-secondary academic programs, especially in graduate school. To be successful in college and in the work place, it is essential to develop adequate writing skills and to learn to communicate written ideas clearly and convincingly. Writing is a skill that improves considerably with practice and experience.

Writing assignments in school or on the job take a variety of forms. Several dichotomies of writing tasks may be identified, including creative writing versus research papers. Types of writing assignments encountered in academia are research papers, literature reviews, critiques of visual and performance arts, creative writing, take-home exams, essay tests, applications for scholarships, grant proposals, theses, and dissertations. Writing assignments required by employers include job applications, research proposals, grant proposals, progress reports, research reports, presentations to customers, correspondences with customers and other businesses, and press releases.

Proofreading involves correcting mistakes in writing assignments. Proofing may be done by professionals or other knowledgeable persons. As they gain experience and practice with proofing strategies, students and employees may review their own work. Some word processing programs provide limited proofreading capabilities.

PURPOSES OF WRITING AND PROOFING STRATEGIES

Writing and proofreading strategies are intended to improve performance on all types of written tasks. Different strategies target different aspects of the writing process: selecting a topic, finding references, organizing ideas, using supporting evidence, writing outlines, writing and revising drafts, citing references, and developing visual aids.

Another purpose of writing strategies is to help students and employees avoid plagiarism, which is a serious crime in most academic institutions and companies.

ADVANTAGES OF WRITING AND PROOFING STRATEGIES

One advantage of the writing and proofing strategies discussed in this page is their flexibility and applicability. The strategies may be used to complete a wide range of writing tasks in school and on the job.

Because the writing strategies clearly outline a plan of action for completing a writing task and provide specific approaches for each stage of the process, the strategies have the added benefit of reducing stress, apprehension, and ambiguity about writing assignments.

Finally, the writing strategies are advantageous because, by reducing stress and uncertainty related to writing tasks, they offset the tendency to procreate.

SPECIFIC WRITING AND PROOFING STRATEGIES

Specific writing and proofing strategies are discussed in this section. It is important to note that the strategies presented here are sketched in the roughest of terms. Because there is too much to cover with respect to writing and proofing in this limited space, the user is strongly urged to consult style guides and writing manuals for more detailed information on the following subjects.

• WRITING STRATEGIES

• Writing In Class: Plan of Action
• Writing Out of Class: Plan of Action
• Choosing a Topic
• Research
• Note taking from References
• Organizing Ideas through Mapping
• Developing an Outline
• Writing Drafts
• Writing Approaches or Strategies
• Structure and Organization
• Style Guides and Writing Manuals
• Common Style Guidelines
• Footnotes, Endnotes, and Bibliographies
• Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing
• Plagiarism
• Visual Aids
• Writing Problems and Strategies
• Word Processing and Printing
• Writing an Argument Paper
• Writing a Compare-Contrast Paper: Sequencing and Chunking
• Journalism Model for Teaching Writing
• Thesaurus
• A Guide to Writing Clearly: Thesis and Topic Sentences, Cohesive Devices, Transitions
• DEFENDS: A Writing Strategy
• Self-Regulated Writing Strategy
• Punctuation Awareness
• Descriptive Techniques
• Sorting Through and Organizing Material
• Strategies for Tutoring Writing
• Paragraph Writing Strategy
• Keyhole Strategy
• Methods of Paragraph Development

• PROOFING STRATEGIES

• Fixing Common Mistakes
• Reviewing a Draft
• Proofreading Marks and Symbols
• See and Spell / Homophones
• Word Processing Capabilities
• Facilitative Language
• Proofreading Checklist
• A Checklist for Revision
• Oral Reading and Sub vocalization
• SCOPE Strategy
• Checking Paragraphs

In-class writing assignments include essay exams, open-book exams, compositions, and critiques. The topic of the assignment is usually provided by the instructor, although sometimes students are permitted to identify their own topics.

For in-class writing assignments, it is important to ask the instructor ahead of time what accommodations are permitted as well as the rules of the assignment. For example, do spelling or grammar mistakes detract from one's grade? Can one use a dictionary? Can one use a computer or word processor? How is the assignment graded - for content, organization, originality, or some combination of criteria?

Suggestions for completing in-class writing assignments are provided below. See the essay section of the Test Taking page for more details.

1. Read the directions carefully.

2. Scan the question(s) or topic(s) quickly.

3. Budget the allotted time among the question(s) or topic(s).

4. Carefully reread the question(s) or topic(s). Start with the ones you know best.

5. Pick a title for the answer to the question.

6. Develop an outline of the answer, logically organizing the main points and supporting details.

7. Write the answer methodically. In other words, be sure to have an introduction, a body of one or more paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each paragraph of the body should contain one main point. Try to write at least three sentences per paragraph. Use plenty of examples.

8. Check the answers once the entire assignment is completed.

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Out-of-class writing assignments include research papers, book reviews, take-home tests, critiques of literary works, critiques of art works, and critiques of music pieces.

Like in-class assignments, it is important to talk with the instructor ahead of time about the rules and guidelines for completing the task. One should fully understand the maximum or minimum page lengths, stylistic requirements, how references are to be cited, if a certain number of references must be consulted, if it may be hand written or must be typed, if computer disks or hard copies (or both) are to be turned in, and the due date and time. Remember to keep a copy of the completed assignment.

The plan of action for completing out-of-class assignments differs somewhat from that for in-class assignments. The plan is summarized here and each step is described more fully in other sections of this page (follow the links). When using this plan, think of writing as a three-stage process: part-writing or planning, writing, and revising and editing. The key is to approach the writing task in steps. Although presented here as a linear sequences of events, in real life the steps are more circular and can be illustrated as a flow chart (to be scanned in the near future).

It is important to devise and stick to a schedule for completing the written assignment in a timely manner. See the Time Management page for suggestions.

Prewriting or Planning Stage

1. Choose the topic, unless a topic is assigned.
   • "Be as specific as possible and limit your subject as strictly as your present knowledge permits" (Garrison, 1981, p. 55).
   • Think about the purpose of the paper.
   • Evaluate the audience in terms of the readers' interests and backgrounds.
   • Develop a thesis or central purpose.

2. Do research to find information.
   • As a rule of thumb, you should locate at least three sources for a short paper and more for a longer paper. This number may vary according to the instructor's requirements.
   • Sources of information include the card catalog, abstract and periodical indexes, encyclopedias and encyclopedia indexes, journals, interviews, and direct observation. If your library does not have a reference, try to locate it through interlibrary loan. Seek the assistance of the reference librarian if necessary.
   • Additional suggestions are offered by Garrison (1981). Quickly scan your sources and jot down short notes; avoid writing detailed notes as this may lead to plagiarism. If your research leads you in new directions, consider shifting the focus of your paper or drawing different conclusions. Consider how conflicting opinions of experts affect your conclusions. Be on the lookout for effective supporting materials like examples or statistics. As a rule of thumb, gather twice as much material as you think you'll need.

3. Organize the information by outlining or mapping.
   • The first time through the material, decide if material is appropriate for the introduction, body, or conclusion.
   • Then sort through the body material and organize it according to the main points to be made.
   • The organization process is aided by outlining or mapping strategies.

   Writing Stage

4. Write the first draft.
   • Garrison (1981, p. ?) suggests that students begin the process of writing by composing "half a dozen short leads. These are only drafts, but they will help you establish the direction and organization of your notes."
   • Write one section or paragraph at a time, starting with the most familiar or interesting material.
   • Don't worry about the order of the sections or paragraphs at this stage; the order may be altered easily at a later time.
   • Consider the six "W's" when preparing a draft: who, what, where, when, why, and how.
   • It may be necessary to write and revise several drafts until you achieve a satisfactory product.

   Revising and Editing Stage

5. Do conceptual revisions and editing.
   • The ideas put forth in the rough draft are critically evaluated during conceptual revisions.
   • Are the main points consistent with the stated or implied thesis?
   • Are the arguments consistent?
   • Are the supporting details relevant to the main point under which they are included?

6. Do organizational revisions and editing.
   • Check the draft for organizational clarity and consistency.
   • The information should be presented in a logical sequence. This includes the order of the main points in the body and the supporting details under each main point.
   • Paragraphs or sections should be united by transitions or other cohesive devices.

7. Do sentence and diction editing.
   • Proofread the draft to examine word choice and to correct spelling errors.
   • Others things to check are capitalization, punctuation, verb tense, and subject-predicate agreement.

8. Make final corrections, type, and print the final draft.
   • Following the manuscript guidelines given by the instructor, type the final draft.
   • Include a title page, bibliography, and table of contents (if required).
   • Print the final draft on the best quality printer setting.

9. Make a copy of the completed assignment, whether on computer disk or paper.
   • Always keep a copy of your work in case the original is lost or misplaced.
   • Once the graded paper is returned from the instructor, keep it until the course grade is posted.

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For assignments like research papers and compositions, students are often permitted to chose the topic about which they will write. This is less so the case for take-home exams and other writing assignments. The following guidelines should help students select appropriate topics.

• Start the process early.
  • Start thinking about a possible topic soon after the assignment is made.
  • Putting off the process of selecting a topic wastes valuable time and encourages procrastination.
  • Not having an idea for a topic is not a valid excuse for inactivity.

• Where to look for topic ideas.
  • There are several places where students may get ideas for a topic. One of the best sources is the instructor; since he/she works in the field, he/she should be able to offer good suggestions.
  • Another place to search for ideas is the textbook or other assigned readings.
  • Talk with other students in the class.
  • Look at professional journals or popular magazines that deal with the subject of the class.

• Pick an interesting topic.
  • The selected topic should be interesting to the student. Otherwise, it will be difficult to get motivated to work on the assignment.
  • This is especially important for students of liberal arts programs in which required courses often fall outside one's scope of interest.
  • Pick a topic related to one's major, beliefs, or past experiences.

• Choose an appropriate scope.
  • Don't select a topic that is too broad or too narrow.
  • If the topic is phrased in terms that are too general, it will be difficult to complete the assignment on time.
  • If the topic is too specific, one may have difficulty finding enough references.
  • A good guideline is to consider the number of pages to be written. If the assignment is to be five to ten pages, select a fairly narrow topic. If the assignment is longer than ten pages, state the topic in more general terms.

• Clear the topic with the instructor.
  • Be sure to describe one's ideas to the instructor for approval.
  • Sometimes it helps to have several alternatives in mind before speaking with the instructor.
  • Clear up any questions or problems before starting the research stage of the project. There are few things more frustrating than having to change a topic after completing some or all of the research.
  • The instructor may suggest references to use.

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The research stage involves finding information related to the paper or essay topic. While the word "research" usually conjures up images of the library, there are other sources of information that students should pursue. The several sources of research materials are outlined below.

The Library

Libraries are valuable sources of published references such as books, journals, encyclopedias, government documents, maps, newspapers, and magazines. One place to look for references in the library is the card catalog, which is a collection of bibliographic data for all library holdings. Card catalogs in most schools today are computerized, but some are still in printed form. Use the key words of the topic to search in the subject portion of the card catalog.

Computerized searching services, which are available at many libraries, are a second method. Key words of the topic are entered into the on-line searching programs. The computer scans its database of references and displays those sources dealing with the subject. Some programs are designed to search periodical (magazine, journal, newspaper) sources only, while others search book and manuscript sources.

A third strategy is to browse the library shelves. Locate a useful reference in the stacks, and then browse the books in that area for additional sources.

Collections of abstracts for journal articles are published for most disciplines. The abstracts may be arranged alphabetically (usually by the author's last name) or topically. Examples of abstract collections are Social Science Citation Index, Chemical Abstracts, and Psychology Abstracts. Abstracts contained in these books describe the articles and give one an idea of their relevance to one's topic.

If references located by abstract collections or computerized searches are not owned by the library, talk with the circulation workers to see if the references may be obtained through interlibrary loan.

Bibliographies

Bibliographies are great places to look for references. In the textbook or other required readings for the course, look at the suggested readings list at the end of each chapter, the references cited at the end of the chapter or article, or the bibliography at the end of the book. Similarly, check the references cited in books and other sources you have already located in the library.

Interviews and Correspondence

Experts and other experienced persons may be consulted for information related to one's research topic. Interviews may be conducted in person, by phone, or through a computer network. Written correspondences take longer but are useful when people are hard to contact or are out of the country; they also provide permanent records of the interview.

When contacting someone, always identify yourself and explain the purpose of the letter or call. When speaking by phone, ask if the person is available to talk at that time. Prepare the questions ahead of time. Repeat quotes to insure accuracy. It is best to record notes during rather than after the interview. Do not tape record interviews without getting permission.

Computer Networks

Information about a wide variety of topics stored in networks like the World Wide Web may be accessed using computer network tools such as Mosaic and Gopher. Colleges and universities usually have connections to these applications, or individuals may subscribe to networking services such as America On-Line or CompuServe.

Some networks arrange information hierarchically, from general topics to more specific entries. Collections of documents related to certain topics (for example, Sociology, Environment, Music) may be arranged as "newsgroups."

Search engines like Yahoo and Infoseek allow the user to type in key words in order to find relevant information. The search engine then searches its database and lists all the pages that contain those key words. The user then explores these links.

If the network address of the information is known, it may be entered to access the data. The World Wide Web network address for information on NASA, for example, is http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/NASA_homepage.html.

Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are used to collect original data to include in a writing assignment. Surveys and questionnaires are collections of questions related to some topic. For example, one might use a questionnaire to ask people's opinions about a controversial issue or to measure people's knowledge about a subject. Survey questions may be open-ended, allowing people to compose their own answers, or they may be limited, asking people to choose from a list of answers.

One benefit of surveys and questionnaires is their flexibility. The questions may be designed to address the specific points of the research paper. In addition, surveys and questionnaires may be distributed to a wide variety of people.

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Writers typically record notes from the references used for the paper or essay. Notes provide a permanent record of the information consulted to write the paper. The notes are organized later into the paper outline and the paper itself.

Notes are usually recorded on paper or note cards by hand. Computers are not often used at this stage of paper development, though the use of lap tops may become more common in the future. A tape recorder may be used to record notes on audio cassettes; it is a useful strategy for students with writing deficiencies.

Two strategies - note cards and clip strip - are useful for taking notes and then organizing them into an outline or rough draft. They are described in the Note taking for Research Papers section of the Note taking page.

When taking notes from references, don't forget to record the bibliographic information for each source as this must be included in the footnotes, endnotes, and/or bibliography of the paper. See the section on footnotes in this page for more information. When recording quotes, statistics, and other important pieces of information, be sure to record the page(s) in the reference on which the material appeared. This reference information must be included in the final report.

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After locating, reading, and taking notes from references, the information must be arranged into a logical format. Mapping involves making a visual record of information by using key words and phrases, ideas, details, and facts. Maps show how ideas are connected or related. Three mapping strategies for organizing ideas are clustering, hierarchies, and listing. A fourth approach, outlining, is covered separately in this page. Other mapping strategies are described in the organization page. The information in this section was compiled by K. Buchanan (CAL).

Clustering

Clustering reveals relationships among ideas by dividing the topic into subparts. Write the topic (reduced to one word or a short phrase) in the center of the page and draw a circle around it. Write the main ideas or subpoenas (again in a word or short phrase) around the topic; circle each main idea and connect it to the center topic word. Around each main idea or sub point, cluster the specific details, facts, and examples related to them. An example of clustered information will be scanned in the near future.

When it is time to write the first draft of the paper, each of the main ideas or sub points will make up one section or one paragraph of the body of the paper. Each section or paragraph will contain the specific details related to each main idea or sub point in the cluster map.

Hierarchies

Hierarchies allow the writer to arrange information from general (inclusive) to specific (exclusive). Write the topic at the top of the page. The main ideas or sub points of the topic are listed below the topic, with lines connecting each sub point to the topic. Specific details, examples, statistics, and facts related to each subtopic are written below and connected to the subtopic. An example of a completed hierarchy will be scanned in the near future.

When it is time to write the first draft, each subtopic and its supporting details will be arranged into a paragraph or a section of the paper.

Listing

Listing allows one to quickly order ideas for a paper. Recall and list the information already known about the topic. Then consider gaps in the information; what additional information is needed to examine the topic completely? List these areas of needed research.

Using this list, place an asterisk (*) next to the most promising or most important items on the list. Rank and number the main items in order of importance. Using a different color for each main idea, highlight all items on the list that are related to main ideas. Cross-out items that are not promising or do not relate to the main ideas. As needed, add new items to the list and group them with the appropriate main ideas.

When it is time to write the first draft, each set of color-coded information will be arranged into a paragraph or a section of the paper.

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Outlining is one way to organize ideas for a paper. Outlines distinguish between main points and details for the paper and they determine how the information will be arranged in the paper. Approaches to grouping and organizing reference notes into main topics are explained in the Note taking page under Note taking for Research Papers.

The outlining procedure is described in more detail in the Outline Format section of the Note taking page. Basically, information related to each main topic is arranged from most general to most specific. Different ideas are placed on different lines of the outline. Supporting ideas are usually indented to the right of the main point they describe. Symbols like Roman numerals, letters, and numbers may be used to distinguish items in the outline. Sample outlines and guidelines for developing outlines are given below.

A Generic Outline

• MAIN TOPIC
  • Subtopic
    1. detail
    2. detail
    3. detail

  • Subtopic
    1. detail
    2. detail

• INTRODUCTION

• CHARACTERISTICS OF CITIES
  • High Population Density
    1. at least 100/sq. km

  • Occupational Specialization

  • Social Differentiation

• EARLY CITIES
  • Jericho, Israel

  • Catal Huyuk, Turkey

• ADVANTAGES OF LIVING IN CITIES
  • Safety
    1. walls of Jericho
    2. moats of medieval cities

  • Access to Goods and Services

  • Availability of Nonrelated Mates

• CONCLUSION

1. Identify main points
   • Carefully examine the reference notes and identify the main ideas or main topics.
   • The main ideas will form the skeleton of the outline.
   • Each main idea will be the subject of one paragraph (or more) in the rough draft.

2. Identify supporting details
   • Determine which facts, statistics, opinions, quotes, and explanations support each main idea.
   • Arrange them under the corresponding main ideas in the outline.
   • Gathering supporting details for a topic from more than one reference usually impresses instructors.
   • Each supporting detail will be a sentence (or several sentences) in the rough draft.

3. Keep it brief
   • Outline information should be written in short phrases and incomplete sentences.
   • Focus on key words and key ideas.
   • Spend more time on getting the information organized logically than writing complete sentences.

4. Logically order the ideas
   • Organize the information logically, using one of the following approaches: chronological, sequential, topical, problem-solution, or cause-effect.
   • These styles are described elsewhere in this page under Structure and Organization.

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Once the writing assignment has been mapped or outlined, you are ready to write the first draft of the paper or essay. When writing the first draft, focus on getting the ideas down quickly. Don't agonize over grammar or detailed references at this stage. You will be concerned with grammar, complete references, and style when writing the second or final drafts.

For longer papers, each main topic in the outline or map will be one section of the paper. Subtopics under the main topic will be the subjects of individual paragraphs in that section. Supporting details for each subtopic are used to write the paragraphs. For shorter papers, each main topic in the outline or map will be one (or more) paragraph of the paper's body. Subtopics and supporting details for that topic are included in that paragraph.

Suggestions for writing drafts are given below. Other sections of this page provide additional information relevant to writing drafts. Refer to the following as a start:

• Structure and Organization
• Style Guides
• Common Style Guidelines
• Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing
• Plagiarism
• Footnotes, Endnotes, and Bibliographies
• Word Processing and Printing
• Writing Approaches or Strategies
• Paragraph Writing Strategy
• Proofreading

• Make a time table
  • Develop a schedule for completing, proofing, and correcting the drafts of the paper.
  • Leave plenty of time to write several drafts and to have them proofed.

• Work in parts
  • It helps to maintain motivation and clarity of purpose if different parts of the paper are written one at a time.
  • Put all the notes related to one main topic in a folder, and use the notes and outline or map to transpose the information into written paragraphs.
  • Keep a separate folder for each section of the paper.
  • Reward yourself for completing each section.
  • When all the sections have been written, add transitions to tie them together.

• Start with the body
  • Write the body of the paper first, working in parts as indicated above.
  • Write the introduction and conclusion last.
  • Then compile the bibliography and compose a title page.

• Proofread each draft
  • Each draft of the paper should be proofed for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, logical errors, organizational problems, and stylistic elements.
  • Seek professional help from the instructor, a tutor, or another person in that field. Or ask friends majoring in English.
  • More information on Proofing strategies is given elsewhere in this page.

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Writing is a powerful tool for thinking. This being the case, writing strategies are different from "getting started" strategies for organizing ideas. There are seven approaches to writing: dialogues, quick drafting, cubing, dramatizing, questioning, looping, and journals. The strategies are appropriate for different writing tasks, student needs, and subjects. This material was compiled by K. Buchanan (CAL). Dialogues

The dialogue approach involves writing conservations between two or more people. Dialogues are useful for finding a topic, exploring ideas, or considering opposing viewpoints.

Quick Drafting

Quick drafting only works if you know what you want to say in the paper. The approach involves quickly "dumping" your ideas for the paper. When you want to organize your thoughts, discover what you already know about the topic, or find out what research needs to be done, the quick drafting strategy may be the way to proceed.

Cubing

The cubing strategy is used to quickly explore a topic. There are six cubing techniques: describing, comparing, associating, analyzing, applying, and arguing. These approaches allow the writer to "cube" information about some facet of a topic. Each cubing technique has specific questions the writer can use to explore a topic.

• Describing
  • What does the subject look like?
  • What color, shape, or texture is it?

• Comparing
  • What is the topic similar to or different from?

• Associating
  • What does it make you think of?
  • How is it connected to your experiences?

• Analyzing
  • How is it made?
  • Where did it come from and where is it going?

• Applying
  • What can be done with it?
  • Does it have any uses?

• Arguing
  • What arguments can you make for the topic or against the topic?

Dramatizing is a way of thinking about how people interact. It is a useful approach to analyzing literature. When critiquing or evaluating a work of literature, consider the following topics:

• Action (What?)
  • Action is anything that happens, will happen, or may happen.
  • Action includes physical as well as emotional action.

• Actor (Who?)
  • The actor is the person, animal or force involved in the action.

• Setting (Where and When?)
  • The situation or background of the action is the setting.
  • Think in terms of the time and place of the action.

• Motive (Why?)
  • The motive is the purpose of the action or the reason for the action.

• Method (How?)
  • The way the action occurred, or whatever makes things happen, is the method.

In order to learn about the topic and decide what to write about it, try the questioning approach. There are five parts to this strategy:

1. What is the topic?

2. Into what parts or characteristics can the topic be broken, and how are the parts related?

3. How is the topic similar or different from other topics?

4. How much can the topic change yet still remain the same?

5. Where does the topic fit in the world?

Writing quickly but repeatedly returning to the topic is known as looping. Looping helps to keep the writer focused on the topic of the paper. The looping process involves six steps:

1. Write down the area of interest.

2. Write nonstop for ten minutes (brainstorming).

3. Reread the ideas recorded in step two. Select the most important idea and make this thought a complete sentence. This is the first loop.

4. Begin with this sentence and write nonstop for ten more minutes.

5. Reread the ideas recorded in step four. Select the most important idea and make this thought a complete sentence. This is the second loop.

6. Keep looping until the sentences become focused on the topic.

Personal records are referred to as journals. Journals take a variety of forms: a notebook of personal thoughts, lists of words, ideas from other courses, responses to readings, records of one's observations or conversations, or sketches of people. The journal approach allows the writer to explore his/her creativity. It encourages originality, reflection, and expansion of ideas.

Applying the Writing Approaches

Pick one of the following subjects and write several sentences comparing and contrasting the items. Try the exercise using a number of the writing strategies covered in this section.

• travel by bus versus subway
• getting what you want through flattery versus persuasion
• soccer and ballet
• baseball and softball
• creationism versus evolution

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Written assignments usually have three main components: preliminaries, text, and reference material (Turabian, 1973, pp. 1-2). Preliminaries may include any combination of the following: frontispiece, title page, blank page, table of contents, list of illustrations, list of tables, preface, acknowledgements, or abstract. The text of papers and essays, whether written in class or out of class, should have three fundamental parts: introduction, body, and conclusion. Footnotes may also be found in the text of the paper. Reference materials include appendixes, a bibliography, a glossary of terms, or lists of abbreviations. Refer to Turabian (1973) and other writing manuals for descriptions of these parts and for instructions on organizing the paper components.

The text may be divided into chapters or headed sections depending on the length of the body. New chapters or sections may begin on new pages. If chapters are divided into sections, each subheading level should be typed in a different style.

Check the syllabus or ask the instructor which paper components should be included and how the text should be structured. Then consult writing manuals and style guides for additional information.

The chapters, sections, and/or paragraphs of the text should be organized in a logical manner. There are several organizational options (Kesselman-Turkel and Peterson, 1981, p. 103):

• Chronological
  • order of historical events
  • cause to effect
  • step-by-step sequence

• From general to specific
  • general topic to subtopics
  • theoretical to practical
  • generalizations to specific examples

• From least to most
  • easiest to most difficult
  • smallest to largest
  • worst to best
  • weakest to strongest
  • least important to most important
  • least complicated to most complicated
  • least effective to most effective
  • least controversial to most controversial

• From most to least
  • most known to least known
  • most factual to least factual (fact to opinion)

• Giving both sides (grouped or interspersed)
  • pros and cons
  • assets and liabilities
  • similarities and differences
  • hard and easy
  • bad and good
  • effective and ineffective
  • weak and strong
  • complicated and uncomplicated
  • controversial and uncontroversial

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A good style guide and writing manual are musts for all students. These reference books provide valuable instruction on writing clearly and correctly. They address common writing ambiguities such as when to use a colon versus a semicolon, when to use hyphens, how to write footnotes in certain documentation styles, and how to repair fragmented sentences.

Style guides and writing manuals should be consulted often during the processes of writing and revising drafts. While they usually cannot be used for in-class assignments, the guides should be handy while working on out-of-class writing tasks.

Style guides and writing manuals vary somewhat in content and organization. Most, however, contain information on the following topics: grammar, punctuation, writing mechanics, clarity, and documenting references. The following lists summarize the contents of selected style guides and writing manuals. Because certain disciplines have unique style requirements, a list of style manuals by academic disciplines is also given. They should be consulted when writing in specific academic fields. Journals in specific academic areas often contain volumes with style guidelines as well.

Examples of General Style Guides and Writing Manuals

• Garrison, R. (1981). How a writer works. New York: Harper & Row.
  • Topics include the writing process, revision, titles and signposts, sentences and grammar, punctuation, paragraphs, wordiness, language-cliches, and doing research.

• Gallon, J. D. & Rink, H. W. (1985). Shaping college writing: Paragraph and essay. (4th ed.) San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Topics include the topic sentence of the paragraph, unity and coherence within paragraphs, supporting information for the topic of each paragraph, organization, one-paragraph essays, expanding paragraphs into essays, and methods of paragraph development.

• Hacker, D. (1993). A pocket style manual. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press.
  • Topics include clarity, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and documenting references.

• Hacker, D. (1989). A writer's reference. New York: St. Martin's Press.
  • Topics include planning, drafting, revision, using word processors, grammatical sentences, effective sentences, word choice, punctuation, capitalization, abbreviation, numbers, italics and underlining, spelling, hyphend, documenting references, and basic grammar.

• Hodges, J. C., et a.l (1990). Harbrace college handbook. (11th ed.) San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Topics include sentence structure, logical thinking, paragraphs, whole composition, research papers, and special purpose writing (resume, letters, memoirs, reports).

• Strunk, W. & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style. (3rd ed.) New York: Macmillan.
  • Topics include the elementary rules of usage, the elementary principles of composition, matters of form, commonly misused words and expressions, and an approach to style.

• Turabian, K. L. (1973). A manual for writers of term papers, theses, and dissertations. (4th ed.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Topics include the parts of a term paper, abbreviations and numbers, spelling and punctuation, capitalization, underlining, other matters of style, quotations, footnotes, bibliographies, using and citing public documents, data tables, illustrations, scientific papers, and typing the paper.

• Biology
  • Council of Biology Editors, (1983). CBE style manual: A guide for authors, editors, and publishers in the biological sciences. (5th ed.) Bethesda: Council of Biology Editors.

• Chemistry
  • American Chemical Society. (1986). American Chemical Society style guide: A manual for authors and editors. (2nd ed.) Washington: American Chemical Society Publishing.

• English and the Humanities
  • Gibaldi, J. & Achert, W. S. (1988). MLA handbook for writers of research papers. (3rd ed.) New York: Modern Language Association of America.

• Geology
  • Bates, R. L., et al. (1992). Geowriting: A guide to writing, editing, and printing in earth science. (5th ed.) Alexandria: American Geological Institute.

• Law
  • Columbia Law Review. (1991). A uniform system of citation. (15th ed.) Cambridge: Harvard Law Review.

• Linguistics
  • Linguistic Society of America. LSA style sheet. Published annually in the December issue of the LSA Bulletin.

• Mathematics
  • American Mathematical Society. (1984). A manual for authors of mathematical papers. (8th ed.) Providence: American Mathematical Society.

• Medicine
  • International Steering Committee of Medical Editors. (1979). Uniform requirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals. Annals of Internal Medicine 90, pp. 95-99.

• Physics
  • American Institute of Physics. (1990). Style manual for guidance in the preparation of papers. (4th ed.) New York: American Institute of Physics.

• Psychology and the Social Sciences
  • American Psychological Association. (1983). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. (3rd ed.) Washington: American Psychological Association.

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Guidelines for appropriate writing styles are outlined in most writing manuals and in some style manuals. While such references should be consulted for complete details (see the Style Guides and Writing Manuals section of this page for a list of references), examples of common style guidelines are listed below . Numbers 1 through 32 are from Strunk and White (1979).

1. Choose a suitable organizational design and stick to it throughout the paper or essay.

2. The unit of composition should be the paragraph.

3. Use the active voice when writing.

4. Put statements in a positive form rather than a negative form.

5. Use definite, specific, and concrete language rather than abstract and ambiguous language.

6. Omit needless words to keep the writing concise.

7. Avoid strings of loose sentences.

8. Express co-ordinate ideas in a similar form.

9. Keep related words and ideas together.

10. Write summaries in one tense.