Writing and Proofing

Background Information on Writing and Proofing

Purposes of Writing and Proofing Strategies

Advantages of Writing and Proofing Strategies

Specific Writing and Proofing Strategies

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BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON WRITING AND PROOFING

Writing is a common requirement on the job and in post-secondary academic programs, especially in graduate school. To be successful in college and in the work place, it is essential to develop adequate writing skills and to learn to communicate written ideas clearly and convincingly. Writing is a skill that improves considerably with practice and experience.

Writing assignments in school or on the job take a variety of forms. Several dichotomies of writing tasks may be identified, including creative writing versus research papers. Types of writing assignments encountered in academia are research papers, literature reviews, critiques of visual and performance arts, creative writing, take-home exams, essay tests, applications for scholarships, grant proposals, theses, and dissertations. Writing assignments required by employers include job applications, research proposals, grant proposals, progress reports, research reports, presentations to customers, correspondences with customers and other businesses, and press releases.

Proofreading involves correcting mistakes in writing assignments. Proofing may be done by professionals or other knowledgeable persons. As they gain experience and practice with proofing strategies, students and employees may review their own work. Some word processing programs provide limited proofreading capabilities.

PURPOSES OF WRITING AND PROOFING STRATEGIES

Writing and proofreading strategies are intended to improve performance on all types of written tasks. Different strategies target different aspects of the writing process: selecting a topic, finding references, organizing ideas, using supporting evidence, writing outlines, writing and revising drafts, citing references, and developing visual aids.

Another purpose of writing strategies is to help students and employees avoid plagiarism, which is a serious crime in most academic institutions and companies.

ADVANTAGES OF WRITING AND PROOFING STRATEGIES

One advantage of the writing and proofing strategies discussed in this page is their flexibility and applicability. The strategies may be used to complete a wide range of writing tasks in school and on the job.

Because the writing strategies clearly outline a plan of action for completing a writing task and provide specific approaches for each stage of the process, the strategies have the added benefit of reducing stress, apprehension, and ambiguity about writing assignments.

Finally, the writing strategies are advantageous because, by reducing stress and uncertainty related to writing tasks, they offset the tendency to procreate.

SPECIFIC WRITING AND PROOFING STRATEGIES

Specific writing and proofing strategies are discussed in this section. It is important to note that the strategies presented here are sketched in the roughest of terms. Because there is too much to cover with respect to writing and proofing in this limited space, the user is strongly urged to consult style guides and writing manuals for more detailed information on the following subjects.

• WRITING STRATEGIES

• Writing In Class: Plan of Action
• Writing Out of Class: Plan of Action
• Choosing a Topic
• Research
• Note taking from References
• Organizing Ideas through Mapping
• Developing an Outline
• Writing Drafts
• Writing Approaches or Strategies
• Structure and Organization
• Style Guides and Writing Manuals
• Common Style Guidelines
• Footnotes, Endnotes, and Bibliographies
• Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing
• Plagiarism
• Visual Aids
• Writing Problems and Strategies
• Word Processing and Printing
• Writing an Argument Paper
• Writing a Compare-Contrast Paper: Sequencing and Chunking
• Journalism Model for Teaching Writing
• Thesaurus
• A Guide to Writing Clearly: Thesis and Topic Sentences, Cohesive Devices, Transitions
• DEFENDS: A Writing Strategy
• Self-Regulated Writing Strategy
• Punctuation Awareness
• Descriptive Techniques
• Sorting Through and Organizing Material
• Strategies for Tutoring Writing
• Paragraph Writing Strategy
• Keyhole Strategy
• Methods of Paragraph Development

• PROOFING STRATEGIES

• Fixing Common Mistakes
• Reviewing a Draft
• Proofreading Marks and Symbols
• See and Spell / Homophones
• Word Processing Capabilities
• Facilitative Language
• Proofreading Checklist
• A Checklist for Revision
• Oral Reading and Sub vocalization
• SCOPE Strategy
• Checking Paragraphs

In-class writing assignments include essay exams, open-book exams, compositions, and critiques. The topic of the assignment is usually provided by the instructor, although sometimes students are permitted to identify their own topics.

For in-class writing assignments, it is important to ask the instructor ahead of time what accommodations are permitted as well as the rules of the assignment. For example, do spelling or grammar mistakes detract from one's grade? Can one use a dictionary? Can one use a computer or word processor? How is the assignment graded - for content, organization, originality, or some combination of criteria?

Suggestions for completing in-class writing assignments are provided below. See the essay section of the Test Taking page for more details.

1. Read the directions carefully.

2. Scan the question(s) or topic(s) quickly.

3. Budget the allotted time among the question(s) or topic(s).

4. Carefully reread the question(s) or topic(s). Start with the ones you know best.

5. Pick a title for the answer to the question.

6. Develop an outline of the answer, logically organizing the main points and supporting details.

7. Write the answer methodically. In other words, be sure to have an introduction, a body of one or more paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each paragraph of the body should contain one main point. Try to write at least three sentences per paragraph. Use plenty of examples.

8. Check the answers once the entire assignment is completed.

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Out-of-class writing assignments include research papers, book reviews, take-home tests, critiques of literary works, critiques of art works, and critiques of music pieces.

Like in-class assignments, it is important to talk with the instructor ahead of time about the rules and guidelines for completing the task. One should fully understand the maximum or minimum page lengths, stylistic requirements, how references are to be cited, if a certain number of references must be consulted, if it may be hand written or must be typed, if computer disks or hard copies (or both) are to be turned in, and the due date and time. Remember to keep a copy of the completed assignment.

The plan of action for completing out-of-class assignments differs somewhat from that for in-class assignments. The plan is summarized here and each step is described more fully in other sections of this page (follow the links). When using this plan, think of writing as a three-stage process: part-writing or planning, writing, and revising and editing. The key is to approach the writing task in steps. Although presented here as a linear sequences of events, in real life the steps are more circular and can be illustrated as a flow chart (to be scanned in the near future).

It is important to devise and stick to a schedule for completing the written assignment in a timely manner. See the Time Management page for suggestions.

Prewriting or Planning Stage

1. Choose the topic, unless a topic is assigned.
   • "Be as specific as possible and limit your subject as strictly as your present knowledge permits" (Garrison, 1981, p. 55).
   • Think about the purpose of the paper.
   • Evaluate the audience in terms of the readers' interests and backgrounds.
   • Develop a thesis or central purpose.

2. Do research to find information.
   • As a rule of thumb, you should locate at least three sources for a short paper and more for a longer paper. This number may vary according to the instructor's requirements.
   • Sources of information include the card catalog, abstract and periodical indexes, encyclopedias and encyclopedia indexes, journals, interviews, and direct observation. If your library does not have a reference, try to locate it through interlibrary loan. Seek the assistance of the reference librarian if necessary.
   • Additional suggestions are offered by Garrison (1981). Quickly scan your sources and jot down short notes; avoid writing detailed notes as this may lead to plagiarism. If your research leads you in new directions, consider shifting the focus of your paper or drawing different conclusions. Consider how conflicting opinions of experts affect your conclusions. Be on the lookout for effective supporting materials like examples or statistics. As a rule of thumb, gather twice as much material as you think you'll need.

3. Organize the information by outlining or mapping.
   • The first time through the material, decide if material is appropriate for the introduction, body, or conclusion.
   • Then sort through the body material and organize it according to the main points to be made.
   • The organization process is aided by outlining or mapping strategies.

   Writing Stage

4. Write the first draft.
   • Garrison (1981, p. ?) suggests that students begin the process of writing by composing "half a dozen short leads. These are only drafts, but they will help you establish the direction and organization of your notes."
   • Write one section or paragraph at a time, starting with the most familiar or interesting material.
   • Don't worry about the order of the sections or paragraphs at this stage; the order may be altered easily at a later time.
   • Consider the six "W's" when preparing a draft: who, what, where, when, why, and how.
   • It may be necessary to write and revise several drafts until you achieve a satisfactory product.

   Revising and Editing Stage

5. Do conceptual revisions and editing.
   • The ideas put forth in the rough draft are critically evaluated during conceptual revisions.
   • Are the main points consistent with the stated or implied thesis?
   • Are the arguments consistent?
   • Are the supporting details relevant to the main point under which they are included?

6. Do organizational revisions and editing.
   • Check the draft for organizational clarity and consistency.
   • The information should be presented in a logical sequence. This includes the order of the main points in the body and the supporting details under each main point.
   • Paragraphs or sections should be united by transitions or other cohesive devices.

7. Do sentence and diction editing.
   • Proofread the draft to examine word choice and to correct spelling errors.
   • Others things to check are capitalization, punctuation, verb tense, and subject-predicate agreement.

8. Make final corrections, type, and print the final draft.
   • Following the manuscript guidelines given by the instructor, type the final draft.
   • Include a title page, bibliography, and table of contents (if required).
   • Print the final draft on the best quality printer setting.

9. Make a copy of the completed assignment, whether on computer disk or paper.
   • Always keep a copy of your work in case the original is lost or misplaced.
   • Once the graded paper is returned from the instructor, keep it until the course grade is posted.

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For assignments like research papers and compositions, students are often permitted to chose the topic about which they will write. This is less so the case for take-home exams and other writing assignments. The following guidelines should help students select appropriate topics.

• Start the process early.
  • Start thinking about a possible topic soon after the assignment is made.
  • Putting off the process of selecting a topic wastes valuable time and encourages procrastination.
  • Not having an idea for a topic is not a valid excuse for inactivity.

• Where to look for topic ideas.
  • There are several places where students may get ideas for a topic. One of the best sources is the instructor; since he/she works in the field, he/she should be able to offer good suggestions.
  • Another place to search for ideas is the textbook or other assigned readings.
  • Talk with other students in the class.
  • Look at professional journals or popular magazines that deal with the subject of the class.

• Pick an interesting topic.
  • The selected topic should be interesting to the student. Otherwise, it will be difficult to get motivated to work on the assignment.
  • This is especially important for students of liberal arts programs in which required courses often fall outside one's scope of interest.
  • Pick a topic related to one's major, beliefs, or past experiences.

• Choose an appropriate scope.
  • Don't select a topic that is too broad or too narrow.
  • If the topic is phrased in terms that are too general, it will be difficult to complete the assignment on time.
  • If the topic is too specific, one may have difficulty finding enough references.
  • A good guideline is to consider the number of pages to be written. If the assignment is to be five to ten pages, select a fairly narrow topic. If the assignment is longer than ten pages, state the topic in more general terms.

• Clear the topic with the instructor.
  • Be sure to describe one's ideas to the instructor for approval.
  • Sometimes it helps to have several alternatives in mind before speaking with the instructor.
  • Clear up any questions or problems before starting the research stage of the project. There are few things more frustrating than having to change a topic after completing some or all of the research.
  • The instructor may suggest references to use.

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The research stage involves finding information related to the paper or essay topic. While the word "research" usually conjures up images of the library, there are other sources of information that students should pursue. The several sources of research materials are outlined below.

The Library

Libraries are valuable sources of published references such as books, journals, encyclopedias, government documents, maps, newspapers, and magazines. One place to look for references in the library is the card catalog, which is a collection of bibliographic data for all library holdings. Card catalogs in most schools today are computerized, but some are still in printed form. Use the key words of the topic to search in the subject portion of the card catalog.

Computerized searching services, which are available at many libraries, are a second method. Key words of the topic are entered into the on-line searching programs. The computer scans its database of references and displays those sources dealing with the subject. Some programs are designed to search periodical (magazine, journal, newspaper) sources only, while others search book and manuscript sources.

A third strategy is to browse the library shelves. Locate a useful reference in the stacks, and then browse the books in that area for additional sources.

Collections of abstracts for journal articles are published for most disciplines. The abstracts may be arranged alphabetically (usually by the author's last name) or topically. Examples of abstract collections are Social Science Citation Index, Chemical Abstracts, and Psychology Abstracts. Abstracts contained in these books describe the articles and give one an idea of their relevance to one's topic.

If references located by abstract collections or computerized searches are not owned by the library, talk with the circulation workers to see if the references may be obtained through interlibrary loan.

Bibliographies

Bibliographies are great places to look for references. In the textbook or other required readings for the course, look at the suggested readings list at the end of each chapter, the references cited at the end of the chapter or article, or the bibliography at the end of the book. Similarly, check the references cited in books and other sources you have already located in the library.

Interviews and Correspondence

Experts and other experienced persons may be consulted for information related to one's research topic. Interviews may be conducted in person, by phone, or through a computer network. Written correspondences take longer but are useful when people are hard to contact or are out of the country; they also provide permanent records of the interview.

When contacting someone, always identify yourself and explain the purpose of the letter or call. When speaking by phone, ask if the person is available to talk at that time. Prepare the questions ahead of time. Repeat quotes to insure accuracy. It is best to record notes during rather than after the interview. Do not tape record interviews without getting permission.

Computer Networks

Information about a wide variety of topics stored in networks like the World Wide Web may be accessed using computer network tools such as Mosaic and Gopher. Colleges and universities usually have connections to these applications, or individuals may subscribe to networking services such as America On-Line or CompuServe.

Some networks arrange information hierarchically, from general topics to more specific entries. Collections of documents related to certain topics (for example, Sociology, Environment, Music) may be arranged as "newsgroups."

Search engines like Yahoo and Infoseek allow the user to type in key words in order to find relevant information. The search engine then searches its database and lists all the pages that contain those key words. The user then explores these links.

If the network address of the information is known, it may be entered to access the data. The World Wide Web network address for information on NASA, for example, is http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/NASA_homepage.html.

Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are used to collect original data to include in a writing assignment. Surveys and questionnaires are collections of questions related to some topic. For example, one might use a questionnaire to ask people's opinions about a controversial issue or to measure people's knowledge about a subject. Survey questions may be open-ended, allowing people to compose their own answers, or they may be limited, asking people to choose from a list of answers.

One benefit of surveys and questionnaires is their flexibility. The questions may be designed to address the specific points of the research paper. In addition, surveys and questionnaires may be distributed to a wide variety of people.

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Writers typically record notes from the references used for the paper or essay. Notes provide a permanent record of the information consulted to write the paper. The notes are organized later into the paper outline and the paper itself.

Notes are usually recorded on paper or note cards by hand. Computers are not often used at this stage of paper development, though the use of lap tops may become more common in the future. A tape recorder may be used to record notes on audio cassettes; it is a useful strategy for students with writing deficiencies.

Two strategies - note cards and clip strip - are useful for taking notes and then organizing them into an outline or rough draft. They are described in the Note taking for Research Papers section of the Note taking page.

When taking notes from references, don't forget to record the bibliographic information for each source as this must be included in the footnotes, endnotes, and/or bibliography of the paper. See the section on footnotes in this page for more information. When recording quotes, statistics, and other important pieces of information, be sure to record the page(s) in the reference on which the material appeared. This reference information must be included in the final report.

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After locating, reading, and taking notes from references, the information must be arranged into a logical format. Mapping involves making a visual record of information by using key words and phrases, ideas, details, and facts. Maps show how ideas are connected or related. Three mapping strategies for organizing ideas are clustering, hierarchies, and listing. A fourth approach, outlining, is covered separately in this page. Other mapping strategies are described in the organization page. The information in this section was compiled by K. Buchanan (CAL).

Clustering

Clustering reveals relationships among ideas by dividing the topic into subparts. Write the topic (reduced to one word or a short phrase) in the center of the page and draw a circle around it. Write the main ideas or subpoenas (again in a word or short phrase) around the topic; circle each main idea and connect it to the center topic word. Around each main idea or sub point, cluster the specific details, facts, and examples related to them. An example of clustered information will be scanned in the near future.

When it is time to write the first draft of the paper, each of the main ideas or sub points will make up one section or one paragraph of the body of the paper. Each section or paragraph will contain the specific details related to each main idea or sub point in the cluster map.

Hierarchies

Hierarchies allow the writer to arrange information from general (inclusive) to specific (exclusive). Write the topic at the top of the page. The main ideas or sub points of the topic are listed below the topic, with lines connecting each sub point to the topic. Specific details, examples, statistics, and facts related to each subtopic are written below and connected to the subtopic. An example of a completed hierarchy will be scanned in the near future.

When it is time to write the first draft, each subtopic and its supporting details will be arranged into a paragraph or a section of the paper.

Listing

Listing allows one to quickly order ideas for a paper. Recall and list the information already known about the topic. Then consider gaps in the information; what additional information is needed to examine the topic completely? List these areas of needed research.

Using this list, place an asterisk (*) next to the most promising or most important items on the list. Rank and number the main items in order of importance. Using a different color for each main idea, highlight all items on the list that are related to main ideas. Cross-out items that are not promising or do not relate to the main ideas. As needed, add new items to the list and group them with the appropriate main ideas.

When it is time to write the first draft, each set of color-coded information will be arranged into a paragraph or a section of the paper.

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Outlining is one way to organize ideas for a paper. Outlines distinguish between main points and details for the paper and they determine how the information will be arranged in the paper. Approaches to grouping and organizing reference notes into main topics are explained in the Note taking page under Note taking for Research Papers.

The outlining procedure is described in more detail in the Outline Format section of the Note taking page. Basically, information related to each main topic is arranged from most general to most specific. Different ideas are placed on different lines of the outline. Supporting ideas are usually indented to the right of the main point they describe. Symbols like Roman numerals, letters, and numbers may be used to distinguish items in the outline. Sample outlines and guidelines for developing outlines are given below.

A Generic Outline

• MAIN TOPIC
  • Subtopic
    1. detail
    2. detail
    3. detail

  • Subtopic
    1. detail
    2. detail

• INTRODUCTION

• CHARACTERISTICS OF CITIES
  • High Population Density
    1. at least 100/sq. km

  • Occupational Specialization

  • Social Differentiation

• EARLY CITIES
  • Jericho, Israel

  • Catal Huyuk, Turkey

• ADVANTAGES OF LIVING IN CITIES
  • Safety
    1. walls of Jericho
    2. moats of medieval cities

  • Access to Goods and Services

  • Availability of Nonrelated Mates

• CONCLUSION

1. Identify main points
   • Carefully examine the reference notes and identify the main ideas or main topics.
   • The main ideas will form the skeleton of the outline.
   • Each main idea will be the subject of one paragraph (or more) in the rough draft.

2. Identify supporting details
   • Determine which facts, statistics, opinions, quotes, and explanations support each main idea.
   • Arrange them under the corresponding main ideas in the outline.
   • Gathering supporting details for a topic from more than one reference usually impresses instructors.
   • Each supporting detail will be a sentence (or several sentences) in the rough draft.

3. Keep it brief
   • Outline information should be written in short phrases and incomplete sentences.
   • Focus on key words and key ideas.
   • Spend more time on getting the information organized logically than writing complete sentences.

4. Logically order the ideas
   • Organize the information logically, using one of the following approaches: chronological, sequential, topical, problem-solution, or cause-effect.
   • These styles are described elsewhere in this page under Structure and Organization.

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Once the writing assignment has been mapped or outlined, you are ready to write the first draft of the paper or essay. When writing the first draft, focus on getting the ideas down quickly. Don't agonize over grammar or detailed references at this stage. You will be concerned with grammar, complete references, and style when writing the second or final drafts.

For longer papers, each main topic in the outline or map will be one section of the paper. Subtopics under the main topic will be the subjects of individual paragraphs in that section. Supporting details for each subtopic are used to write the paragraphs. For shorter papers, each main topic in the outline or map will be one (or more) paragraph of the paper's body. Subtopics and supporting details for that topic are included in that paragraph.

Suggestions for writing drafts are given below. Other sections of this page provide additional information relevant to writing drafts. Refer to the following as a start:

• Structure and Organization
• Style Guides
• Common Style Guidelines
• Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing
• Plagiarism
• Footnotes, Endnotes, and Bibliographies
• Word Processing and Printing
• Writing Approaches or Strategies
• Paragraph Writing Strategy
• Proofreading

• Make a time table
  • Develop a schedule for completing, proofing, and correcting the drafts of the paper.
  • Leave plenty of time to write several drafts and to have them proofed.

• Work in parts
  • It helps to maintain motivation and clarity of purpose if different parts of the paper are written one at a time.
  • Put all the notes related to one main topic in a folder, and use the notes and outline or map to transpose the information into written paragraphs.
  • Keep a separate folder for each section of the paper.
  • Reward yourself for completing each section.
  • When all the sections have been written, add transitions to tie them together.

• Start with the body
  • Write the body of the paper first, working in parts as indicated above.
  • Write the introduction and conclusion last.
  • Then compile the bibliography and compose a title page.

• Proofread each draft
  • Each draft of the paper should be proofed for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, logical errors, organizational problems, and stylistic elements.
  • Seek professional help from the instructor, a tutor, or another person in that field. Or ask friends majoring in English.
  • More information on Proofing strategies is given elsewhere in this page.

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Writing is a powerful tool for thinking. This being the case, writing strategies are different from "getting started" strategies for organizing ideas. There are seven approaches to writing: dialogues, quick drafting, cubing, dramatizing, questioning, looping, and journals. The strategies are appropriate for different writing tasks, student needs, and subjects. This material was compiled by K. Buchanan (CAL). Dialogues

The dialogue approach involves writing conservations between two or more people. Dialogues are useful for finding a topic, exploring ideas, or considering opposing viewpoints.

Quick Drafting

Quick drafting only works if you know what you want to say in the paper. The approach involves quickly "dumping" your ideas for the paper. When you want to organize your thoughts, discover what you already know about the topic, or find out what research needs to be done, the quick drafting strategy may be the way to proceed.

Cubing

The cubing strategy is used to quickly explore a topic. There are six cubing techniques: describing, comparing, associating, analyzing, applying, and arguing. These approaches allow the writer to "cube" information about some facet of a topic. Each cubing technique has specific questions the writer can use to explore a topic.

• Describing
  • What does the subject look like?
  • What color, shape, or texture is it?

• Comparing
  • What is the topic similar to or different from?

• Associating
  • What does it make you think of?
  • How is it connected to your experiences?

• Analyzing
  • How is it made?
  • Where did it come from and where is it going?

• Applying
  • What can be done with it?
  • Does it have any uses?

• Arguing
  • What arguments can you make for the topic or against the topic?

Dramatizing is a way of thinking about how people interact. It is a useful approach to analyzing literature. When critiquing or evaluating a work of literature, consider the following topics:

• Action (What?)
  • Action is anything that happens, will happen, or may happen.
  • Action includes physical as well as emotional action.

• Actor (Who?)
  • The actor is the person, animal or force involved in the action.

• Setting (Where and When?)
  • The situation or background of the action is the setting.
  • Think in terms of the time and place of the action.

• Motive (Why?)
  • The motive is the purpose of the action or the reason for the action.

• Method (How?)
  • The way the action occurred, or whatever makes things happen, is the method.

In order to learn about the topic and decide what to write about it, try the questioning approach. There are five parts to this strategy:

1. What is the topic?

2. Into what parts or characteristics can the topic be broken, and how are the parts related?

3. How is the topic similar or different from other topics?

4. How much can the topic change yet still remain the same?

5. Where does the topic fit in the world?

Writing quickly but repeatedly returning to the topic is known as looping. Looping helps to keep the writer focused on the topic of the paper. The looping process involves six steps:

1. Write down the area of interest.

2. Write nonstop for ten minutes (brainstorming).

3. Reread the ideas recorded in step two. Select the most important idea and make this thought a complete sentence. This is the first loop.

4. Begin with this sentence and write nonstop for ten more minutes.

5. Reread the ideas recorded in step four. Select the most important idea and make this thought a complete sentence. This is the second loop.

6. Keep looping until the sentences become focused on the topic.

Personal records are referred to as journals. Journals take a variety of forms: a notebook of personal thoughts, lists of words, ideas from other courses, responses to readings, records of one's observations or conversations, or sketches of people. The journal approach allows the writer to explore his/her creativity. It encourages originality, reflection, and expansion of ideas.

Applying the Writing Approaches

Pick one of the following subjects and write several sentences comparing and contrasting the items. Try the exercise using a number of the writing strategies covered in this section.

• travel by bus versus subway
• getting what you want through flattery versus persuasion
• soccer and ballet
• baseball and softball
• creationism versus evolution

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Written assignments usually have three main components: preliminaries, text, and reference material (Turabian, 1973, pp. 1-2). Preliminaries may include any combination of the following: frontispiece, title page, blank page, table of contents, list of illustrations, list of tables, preface, acknowledgements, or abstract. The text of papers and essays, whether written in class or out of class, should have three fundamental parts: introduction, body, and conclusion. Footnotes may also be found in the text of the paper. Reference materials include appendixes, a bibliography, a glossary of terms, or lists of abbreviations. Refer to Turabian (1973) and other writing manuals for descriptions of these parts and for instructions on organizing the paper components.

The text may be divided into chapters or headed sections depending on the length of the body. New chapters or sections may begin on new pages. If chapters are divided into sections, each subheading level should be typed in a different style.

Check the syllabus or ask the instructor which paper components should be included and how the text should be structured. Then consult writing manuals and style guides for additional information.

The chapters, sections, and/or paragraphs of the text should be organized in a logical manner. There are several organizational options (Kesselman-Turkel and Peterson, 1981, p. 103):

• Chronological
  • order of historical events
  • cause to effect
  • step-by-step sequence

• From general to specific
  • general topic to subtopics
  • theoretical to practical
  • generalizations to specific examples

• From least to most
  • easiest to most difficult
  • smallest to largest
  • worst to best
  • weakest to strongest
  • least important to most important
  • least complicated to most complicated
  • least effective to most effective
  • least controversial to most controversial

• From most to least
  • most known to least known
  • most factual to least factual (fact to opinion)

• Giving both sides (grouped or interspersed)
  • pros and cons
  • assets and liabilities
  • similarities and differences
  • hard and easy
  • bad and good
  • effective and ineffective
  • weak and strong
  • complicated and uncomplicated
  • controversial and uncontroversial

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A good style guide and writing manual are musts for all students. These reference books provide valuable instruction on writing clearly and correctly. They address common writing ambiguities such as when to use a colon versus a semicolon, when to use hyphens, how to write footnotes in certain documentation styles, and how to repair fragmented sentences.

Style guides and writing manuals should be consulted often during the processes of writing and revising drafts. While they usually cannot be used for in-class assignments, the guides should be handy while working on out-of-class writing tasks.

Style guides and writing manuals vary somewhat in content and organization. Most, however, contain information on the following topics: grammar, punctuation, writing mechanics, clarity, and documenting references. The following lists summarize the contents of selected style guides and writing manuals. Because certain disciplines have unique style requirements, a list of style manuals by academic disciplines is also given. They should be consulted when writing in specific academic fields. Journals in specific academic areas often contain volumes with style guidelines as well.

Examples of General Style Guides and Writing Manuals

• Garrison, R. (1981). How a writer works. New York: Harper & Row.
  • Topics include the writing process, revision, titles and signposts, sentences and grammar, punctuation, paragraphs, wordiness, language-cliches, and doing research.

• Gallon, J. D. & Rink, H. W. (1985). Shaping college writing: Paragraph and essay. (4th ed.) San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Topics include the topic sentence of the paragraph, unity and coherence within paragraphs, supporting information for the topic of each paragraph, organization, one-paragraph essays, expanding paragraphs into essays, and methods of paragraph development.

• Hacker, D. (1993). A pocket style manual. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press.
  • Topics include clarity, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and documenting references.

• Hacker, D. (1989). A writer's reference. New York: St. Martin's Press.
  • Topics include planning, drafting, revision, using word processors, grammatical sentences, effective sentences, word choice, punctuation, capitalization, abbreviation, numbers, italics and underlining, spelling, hyphend, documenting references, and basic grammar.

• Hodges, J. C., et a.l (1990). Harbrace college handbook. (11th ed.) San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Topics include sentence structure, logical thinking, paragraphs, whole composition, research papers, and special purpose writing (resume, letters, memoirs, reports).

• Strunk, W. & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style. (3rd ed.) New York: Macmillan.
  • Topics include the elementary rules of usage, the elementary principles of composition, matters of form, commonly misused words and expressions, and an approach to style.

• Turabian, K. L. (1973). A manual for writers of term papers, theses, and dissertations. (4th ed.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Topics include the parts of a term paper, abbreviations and numbers, spelling and punctuation, capitalization, underlining, other matters of style, quotations, footnotes, bibliographies, using and citing public documents, data tables, illustrations, scientific papers, and typing the paper.

• Biology
  • Council of Biology Editors, (1983). CBE style manual: A guide for authors, editors, and publishers in the biological sciences. (5th ed.) Bethesda: Council of Biology Editors.

• Chemistry
  • American Chemical Society. (1986). American Chemical Society style guide: A manual for authors and editors. (2nd ed.) Washington: American Chemical Society Publishing.

• English and the Humanities
  • Gibaldi, J. & Achert, W. S. (1988). MLA handbook for writers of research papers. (3rd ed.) New York: Modern Language Association of America.

• Geology
  • Bates, R. L., et al. (1992). Geowriting: A guide to writing, editing, and printing in earth science. (5th ed.) Alexandria: American Geological Institute.

• Law
  • Columbia Law Review. (1991). A uniform system of citation. (15th ed.) Cambridge: Harvard Law Review.

• Linguistics
  • Linguistic Society of America. LSA style sheet. Published annually in the December issue of the LSA Bulletin.

• Mathematics
  • American Mathematical Society. (1984). A manual for authors of mathematical papers. (8th ed.) Providence: American Mathematical Society.

• Medicine
  • International Steering Committee of Medical Editors. (1979). Uniform requirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals. Annals of Internal Medicine 90, pp. 95-99.

• Physics
  • American Institute of Physics. (1990). Style manual for guidance in the preparation of papers. (4th ed.) New York: American Institute of Physics.

• Psychology and the Social Sciences
  • American Psychological Association. (1983). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. (3rd ed.) Washington: American Psychological Association.

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Guidelines for appropriate writing styles are outlined in most writing manuals and in some style manuals. While such references should be consulted for complete details (see the Style Guides and Writing Manuals section of this page for a list of references), examples of common style guidelines are listed below . Numbers 1 through 32 are from Strunk and White (1979).

1. Choose a suitable organizational design and stick to it throughout the paper or essay.

2. The unit of composition should be the paragraph.

3. Use the active voice when writing.

4. Put statements in a positive form rather than a negative form.

5. Use definite, specific, and concrete language rather than abstract and ambiguous language.

6. Omit needless words to keep the writing concise.

7. Avoid strings of loose sentences.

8. Express co-ordinate ideas in a similar form.

9. Keep related words and ideas together.

10. Write summaries in one tense.

11. Emphatic words should be placed at the end of sentences.

12. Write naturally.

13. Work from a suitable structure or design.

14. Emphasize nouns and verbs when writing.

15. Revise and rewrite the paper.

16. Don't overwrite.

17. Don't overexplain.

18. Don't overstate one's points.

19. Avoid the use of qualifiers whenever possible.

20. Don't affect in a breezy manner.

21. Use conventional spellings.

22. Don't construct awkward adverbs.

23. Be sure the reader knows who is speaking.

24. Don't use fancy words.

25. Don't use dialect unless one's ear is good.

26. Write clearly.

27. Don't inject opinion unless so instructed.

28. Use cliches and figures of speech sparingly.

29. Don't take shortcuts if clarity is affected.

30. Avoid using foreign languages.

31. Prefer the standard to the unconventional.

32. Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence.

33. End each paragraph with a transition sentence.

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References listed in footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies allow the writer to give credit to the sources of information used in the paper. Citations for direct quotations and paraphrased material within the text of a paper are covered in the Citing, Quoting, and Paraphrasing section of this page.

FOOTNOTES

As the name implies, footnotes are numbered references listed at the bottom of the page on which the cited information appears. The footnote number appears as superscript in the text immediately following the information cited from the reference. The bibliographic information is recorded at the bottom of the page with the corresponding number. Most often, footnotes are used along with a bibliography to reference the sources consulted for the paper. In some cases, complete footnotes (i.e., those with all relevant bibliographic information for each reference) are used in place of a bibliography.

While styles vary, footnotes usually contain the author's name, the year the reference was published, and the page number(s) from which the information was taken. With some styles of footnoting, as in the case when footnotes are used instead of a bibliography, the name of the book or journal, the journal volume, the publisher of the book, and the city of publication are also given.

Writers should understand clearly the footnoting style and format required by the instructor. Examples of commonly used styles are APA and MLA. These styles are described and exemplified in style guides and writing manuals (see the Style Guides and Writing Manuals section of this page). Aspects of footnotes that may vary from one style to another are:

• Do footnote numbers run consecutively between pages, or do numbers start at 1 on each page?

• Are footnotes to be separated from the text with a line? If so, what style of line is used?

• Are abbreviations permitted in the footnote citations?

• Are footnotes indented or flush with the left margin of the paper?

With the advent of word processors and word processing programs, footnoting has become considerably easier. The computer automatically numbers the footnotes in the text (unless instructed otherwise) and leaves the appropriate amount of space at the bottom of the page. Most programs also insert lines separating the text and the footnotes.

As a final note, footnotes may contain information other than bibliographic references. Footnotes may include ancillary information such as clarification of ideas in the text or information that would interrupt the flow of words if included in the text. They may contain cross-references and acknowledgements as well (Turabian, 1973).

The drawing below illustrates the placement of the footnote numbers within the text and the footnotes themselves at the bottom of a page of text. Specific examples of footnotes are also given below; the first example shows footnotes with complete references and the second example shows shortened references.

Placement of Footnotes

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 1 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 2 -------------------- 1 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 2 xxxxxxxxxxxxx

Example of Full-Reference Footnotes with Abbreviations

important. The environmental setting of the Classic Maya civilization is the rain forested highlands of southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize. 1 "The Maya civilization is probably the best known of all early American civilizations." 2 The large stepped pyramid sites of Tikal, Palenque, and El Mirador are visited by numerous tourists each year. The characteristic art work of the Maya has been copied by some modern artists. Mayan astronomy is the subject of many documentaries and popular books. 3 ------------------ 1 Wenke, R. J. (1980). Patterns of Prehistory . New York, NY: Oxford University Press, p. 594. 2 Fagan, B. M. (1992). People of the Earth . (7th ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers, p. 576. 3 For example, see Pitt, E. (1991). Mayan Astronomy . New York, NY: Pacer.

Example of Shortened Footnotes

important. The environmental setting of the Classic Maya civilization is the rain forested highlands of southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize. 1 "The Maya civilization is probably the best known of all early American civilizations." 2 The large stepped pyramid sites of Tikal, Palenque, and El Mirador are visited by numerous tourists each year. The characteristic art work of the Maya has been copied by some modern artists. Mayan astronomy is the subject of many documentaries and popular books. 3 ------------------ 1 Wenke (1980, p. 594). 2 Fagan (1992, p. 576). 3 See Pitt (1991), Stout (1987), and Feser (1977).

ENDNOTES

Endnotes are similar to footnotes except that, as the name suggests, the bibliographic information for references is listed on one or more separate pages at the end of the text rather than at the bottom of each page. Like footnotes, endnotes are superscripted numbers that appear in the text and refer to references for ideas or specific pieces of information. Endnotes must be consecutively numbered since they all appear on one sheet of paper.

Endnotes, like footnotes, may contain full bibliographic information for each reference, taking the place of or in addition to a bibliography, or they may list just the author's last name, date of publication, and page numbers for each reference. Endnotes also may contain ancillary information like clarifications or explanations of ideas in the text. The use of abbreviations is another option with endnotes, as is indenting the first line of each note. The specific stylistic guidelines for endnotes will vary by instructor and by subject. Refer to style guides for specific endnote styles and formats, or ask the instructor to indicate his/her preferences.

Examples of endnote sheets with complete and partial references are given below.

Example of Endnotes with Complete References

ENDNOTES 1 Smucker, T. (1990). Apartheid . New York, NY: Harper-Row. 2 Abdulla, P. (1991). South African Politics . Politics Today 35: 12-39. 3 Bowen, D. (1994). Racial Segregation in the 1980's . Chicago: Plenum Press. 4 Ibid. 5 This idea is more fully developed by Tucker, J.I. (1988). Apartheid in South Africa . Atlanta: Academic Press, pp. 119-175.

Example of Endnotes with Partial References

ENDNOTES 1 Smucker (1990). 2 Abdulla (1991, p. 12-39). 3 Bowen (1994). 4 Ibid. 5 This idea is more fully developed by Tucker (1988, pp. 119-175).

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

All sources of information used to write a paper or essay, including books, journals, personal interviews, works of music, plays, and newspapers, are listed in the bibliography. Rather than being listed in the order in which they appear in the text, like footnotes and endnotes, bibliographic references are arranged alphabetically. The reference list appears on a separate sheet of paper following the text and the endnotes (if used); the page is usually headed BIBLIOGRAPHY or REFERENCES or REFERENCES CITED.

Items in the bibliography are not numbered, unlike footnotes and endnotes. Nor is the first line of each item indented as may be the case with footnotes and endnotes; instead, the second and additional lines may be indented with each bibliography entry. Ibid. is not used in bibliographies because each item is unique. Another difference is that bibliographies contain no ancillary information; if such material must be included in the paper and footnotes or endnotes are not used, a separate piece of paper headed NOTES may be used to record the information in the same format as endnotes are organized.

Items in the bibliography are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If the reference has no author, then the title of the reference (ignoring articles like "The" and "A") is used to alphabetically order the reference. If the reference has more than one author, the name listed first is used to position the reference in the bibliography. When there are three or more authors, it may be appropriate to use the abbreviation et al. (Latin for "and others") following the first name instead of listing all the additional names. If one person is the author of more than one reference, his/her references are listed alphabetically by title or listed chronologically by date of publication (starting with either the most recent or the oldest date). Again, these stylistic alternatives vary by instructor and by subject.

All bibliography entries must contain the following information: author's full name, title of reference, name of publisher and place of publication (for books only), name of journal and volume number (for journals, newspapers, book series), date of publication, and page numbers. Remember that references should not appear more than once in the bibliography.

There should be a blank line between each item in the bibliography; in other words, double space between each entry. Lines within one item, however, should be single spaced.

The way bibliographic information is typed and arranged will vary by instructor and subject. Check with the instructor or consult style guides for clarification. Examples of possible stylistic variations in bibliography entries are:

• In what order is the bibliographic information listed within each reference?

• Are pieces of information within one entry (e.g., name, title, date, etc.) separated by commas or periods?

• Are the first and middle names of authors spelled out or are initials used?

• Does the date for a reference appear after the author's name or after the publisher?

• Are the names of second or third authors written last name first or first name last?

• Are book titles and journal names to be underlined or italicized?

• Are the titles of journal articles to be written with quotes or not?

• Are journal volume numbers to be typed in bold print?

• What form of indenting is to be used?

• Can et al. be used?

STYLE	BIBLIOGRAPHIC ENTRY
American Psychiatric Association (APA)	Butler, J. (1959). Inside the living cell . New York: Basic Books.
Modern Language Association (MLA)	Butler, Josh. Inside the Living Cell . New York: Basic Books, 1959.
Society for American Archaeology	Butler, J. 1959 Inside the Living Cell . Basic Books, New York.

A helpful tip for writing bibliographies, and one that is sure to save time and headaches, is to record all bibliographic information before using each reference. Don't tell yourself that you'll get the information later, because chances are you'll forget or you won't be able to find the book. It is especially important to record the page numbers from which information was taken for each source. If one is unsure what information to record for a reference, write everything down to be on the safe side; then consult a style guide or ask the instructor what to include. A strategy for recording bibliographic information from references is discussed in the Note taking for Research Papers section of the Note taking page.

A fictitious bibliography is below to illustrate how bibliographies typically are organized. The bibliography is in APA (American Psychiatric Association) style.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bates, N. (1990). The Oedipus complex. Modern Psychology 44, pp. 341-376. Cox, J. I. (Ed.). (1987). Introduction to psychology . New York: Dover Press. Usher, P. and Tate, L. (1991). Inside the brain. American Psychologist 12, pp. 13-38. Wise, V. (1989). Psychology today (3rd ed.). Chicago: Chicago University Press. ----- (1990). Professor of Psychology at East Union University, Personal Interview, May 5.

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Citations are references to the works of other people. Citations are required when the following types of information are used in a paper or essay: direct quotes, paraphrases, summaries, "statistics, little- known facts, controversial data, charts, graphs, diagrams, and original ideas" (Hacker, 1989, p. 170). Unlike footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies, citations are given within the text.

QUOTATIONS

Quotations are verbatim phrases and sentences taken from the writings of another author. When quoting another source, be sure the information is copied accurately (Hacker, 1989).

"Signal phrases" are used to incorporate quotations into the text and to indicate to the reader that information from another source follows. Try to vary signal phrases throughout the text (Hacker, 1993). The following italicized phrases are hypothetical examples of signal phrases.

• According to Albert Feser (1993) , "the most significant cultural development of humans was the invention of stone tools" (p. 45). A different opinion is expressed by Susan Utley (1991) , who argues that "writing was clearly the most important cultural development of humans" (p. 233).

One of the keys to success in school is a good memory. Having a good memory enables students to remember information on exams and to participate meaningfully in class. In order to develop one's memory skills, one must understand how memory works. According to Herrman, Raybeck, and Gutman (1993), The memory system is located in the brain and the brain stem, at the top of the spinal cord. As with other parts of the brain, the memory system receives information from the senses and sends signals that enable us to respond with speech or gestures. It is well known that different portions of the brain perform different memory functions, and it turns out that a part of the brain stem is involved in registering information into long-term memory. The temporal lobes . . . are also involved in registering memories (6-7). An understanding of the human memory system is also important in developing a repertoire of memory strategies. Some memory strategies are designed to aid in encoding information into memory. Other strategies target the process of retrieving information from long-term memory. Some memory strategies help students pay attention while receiving sensory input so that the information can make it into memory.

When information from the original source is omitted because it is irrelevant or it interrupts the flow of the quote, ellipses are inserted at the point of omission. Ellipses are three periods separated by spaces. When ellipses are used, be sure that the remaining quoted text is grammatically correct (Hacker, 1993). An example of an ellipse was given in the previous quote.

When the author needs to add information within a quote, that material is set off with brackets. Brackets are used to clarify or to maintain grammatical correctness (Hacker, 1993). For example,

• As indicated by Becker and Yontz, "igneous rocks may be classified as mafic [containing relatively small amounts of silica] or basic [containing large amounts of silica]" (53).

• Although the domestication of maize provided a stable food source year-round, "early maize farmers [were] plagued with a higher incidence of dental caries than [were] farmers who raised local domesticates" (Murphy 69).

• As indicated by Becker and Yontz, "igneous rocks may be classified as mafic or basic" (53).

• "Igneous rocks may be classified as mafic or basic" (Becker and Yontz 53).

• As indicated by Becker and Yontz (1993), "igneous rocks may be classified as mafic or basic" (p. 53).

• "Igneous rocks may be classified as mafic or basic" (Becker and Yontz, 1993, p. 53).

Paraphrasing involves rewriting an author's ideas in one's own words. "A paraphrase reports information in roughly the same number or words used by the source" but the information is not copied verbatim as with a quotation (Hacker, 1989, p. 170).

When paraphrasing, it is important to avoid shuffling the author's words and borrowing the author's sentence structure. Both of these are forms of plagiarism and constitute illegal actions (see the Plagiarism section of this page for more information).

The format of in-text citations for paraphrases varies by writing style. The same MLA and APA formats are used for paraphrases as were described for quotations above.

Examples of proper paraphrases and plagiarized paraphrases are given on the next card (quoted from Hacker, 1989, p. 171).

• Original Version

  If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it was also startling news for animal behaviorists.

  • Unacceptable Borrowing of Words

    An ape who knew sign language unsettled linguists and startled animal behaviorists (Davis 26).

  • Unacceptable Borrowing of Structure

    If the presence of a sign-language-using chimp was disturbing for scientists studying language, it was also surprising to scientists studying animal behavior (Davis 26).

  • Acceptable Paraphrase

    When they learned of an ape's ability to use sign language, both linguists and animal behaviorists were taken by surprise (Davis 26).

A summary presents a shortened version of a block of text. As explained by Hacker (1993), "a summary condenses information from a source, perhaps capsulizing a chapter in a short paragraph or a paragraph in a single sentence" (p. 170).

When summarizing it is important to avoid shuffling the author's words and borrowing the author's sentence structure. Both of these a forms of plagiarism and constitute illegal actions (see the Plagiarism section of this page for more information).

The format of in-text citations for summaries varies by writing style. The same MLA and APA formats are used for summaries as were described for quotations earlier in this section.

An example of a proper summary is given on the next card (quoted from Hacker, 1989, p. 170).

• Original Source

  Public and scientific interest in the question of apes' ability to use language first soared some 15 years ago when Washoe, a chimpanzee raised like a human child by R. Allen Gardner and Beatrice Gardner of the University of Nevada, learned to make hand signs for many words and even seemed to be making short sentences. - Erik Eckholm

  • Summary

    Interest in the ability of apes to use language was sparked in the early seventies, when a chimpanzee named Washoe was taught sign language by R. Allen Gardner and Beatrice Gardner (Eckholm B7).

In addition to quotes, paraphrases, and summaries, other forms of original information must be cited when borrowed from another author. As Hacker (1989) explains,"cite any other specific borrowings from a source: statistics, little-known facts, controversial data, charts, graphs, diagrams, and original ideas. The only exception is common knowledge - information that readers could find in any number of general sources because it is commonly known. For example, the current population of the United States is common knowledge as are the dates of the Civil War and the names of the men who first landed on the moon. As a rule, when you have seen certain facts repeatedly in your reading, you don't need to cite them. When they have appeared in only one or two sources or when they are controversial, however, you should cite them. When in doubt, cite the source" (p. 170-171).

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Plagiarism involves using as one's own the ideas and writings of others. Whether intentional or unintentional, plagiarism is a serious matter. It is illegal to steal others' ideas and writings without giving them proper credit. Students caught plagiarizing may be expelled from school and employees who plagiarize may be fired. Professionals who steal the work of others are often outcast from their fields of study.

"To avoid plagiarism, you must cite all quotations, summaries, and paraphrases as well as any facts or ideas that are not common knowledge. In addition, you must be careful to put paraphrases and summaries in your own words" (Hacker, 1989, p. 169). Strategies for avoiding plagiarism are outlined below.

• Know What to Cite

  The writer should be familiar with the types of information that must be cited. Refer to the Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing section of this page for more details.

  • Information copied verbatim from another source must be set off in quotation marks and cited.

  • Information paraphrased from another source must be cited.

  • Summaries of information that capture the main points of the source, reducing them to fewer numbers of words, must be cited. "A summary condenses information from a source, perhaps capsulizing a chapter in a short paragraph or a paragraph in a single sentence" (Hacker, 1989, p. 170).

  • Information that is not common knowledge must be cited; this includes: "statistics, little-known facts, controversial data, charts, graphs, diagrams, and original ideas" (Hacker, 1989, p. 170).

• Know How to Cite

  Citation formats vary according to writing styles (e.g. APA, MLA) and the type of information. For example, citations for direct quotes usually contain the author's last name, year of publication, and page numbers. Citations for paraphrases and summaries often contain only the author's last name and year of publication. More information on citation format is given in the Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing section of this page. Footnotes and endnotes, which are additional methods for citing references, are discussed in the Footnotes, Endnotes, and Bibliographies section of this page.

• Use Your Own Words

  "When you summarize or paraphrase, it is not enough to name the source; you must restate the source's meaning using only your own words. You are guilty of plagiarism, a form of academic dishonesty, if you half copy the author's sentences - either by mixing the author's well-chosen words without using quotation marks or by plugging your own synonyms into the author's sentence structure" (Hacker, 1989, p. 171). In other words, it is not enough to move words around or to substitute one word for the author's.

• Work from Memory

  "To avoid plagiarizing an author's wording, resist the temptation to look at the source while you are summarizing or paraphrasing. Close the book, write from memory, and then open the book to check for accuracy. This technique prevents you from being captivated by the words on the page" (Hacker, 1989, p. 171).

• Descriptive Words

  "Avoid using the same descriptive words (verbs, as well as adjectives and adverbs) that are found in the original text. Look out for emotionally loaded words, such as scrambled, thrust, blasted, cheated, hostile, brutal, exterminated, sterile, violent, honest, and so on" (Gallo and Rink, 1985, p. 79).

• Be Wary of Opinions

  "Avoid restating the writer's opinions. Develop your own opinions based on the facts. . . . If you do use the writer's opinions, be sure to distinguish clearly between the writer's opinions and your own, and between facts and opinions in your source; credit the writers's opinions in a note" (Gallo and Rink, 1985, p. 79).

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Visual aids are used to illustrate the points made in a paper, to present information in alternate formats, and to summarize data described or evaluated in a paper.

There are two major types of visual aids: tables and illustrations. The former usually contains sets of numerical data. The latter includes charts, graphs, diagrams, commercial and original illustrations (figures), photographs, and maps.

The position of visual aids within a paper depends on the style of organization used. With some disciplines the illustrations are placed as soon as possible after the first reference in the text. With others, all visual aids are grouped by type at the end of the paper after the bibliography. Refer to style guides and writing manuals for specific instructions.

Basic guidelines for and examples of tables and illustrations are provided below.

Tables

Tables are used to present numerical data. Each table should be numbered consecutively according to the order in which they are referenced in the text. The table number and title are centered at the top of the table. The size and orientation of the information depends on the amount of data and format of the paper. Each column of the table should have a heading clearly indicating the type of data contained within it. Abbreviations and symbols are acceptable, but a key to their meanings should be provided. Table footnotes usually indicate the source(s) of the data if they are not original, general notes or explanations, and notes about specific portions of the table. Ruling lines may or may not be included between columns and rows in the table.

An example of a table is given below.

Table 3. Pearson's correlation coefficients (p=0.05) for experimental
and control groups used in the hypnosis experiments.

TECHNIQUE	1988	1989	1990	1991
Walker (1977)	0.71	0.77	0.61	0.80
Joseph (1982)	0.43	0.55	0.51	0.40
Ames (1979)	0.89	0.91	0.68	0.75

NOTES: Sample sizes for experimental and control groups for each year and for each technique were 175; subjects were drawn from an introductory psychology class at a midwestern university.

Illustrations

Illustrations usually contain non-text and non-numerical data. Each illustration should be numbered consecutively according to the order in which they are referenced in the text; all types of illustrations are lumped together in this process. The illustration number and title are centered below the visual aid. Abbreviations and symbols are acceptable if a key is provided. Illustration footnotes usually indicate the source(s) of the data if they are not original, general notes or explanations, and notes about specific portions of the illustration.

An example of an illustration is forthcoming.

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The following table (REFERENCE) summarizes writing problems commonly encountered by students and offers individualized and classroom strategies that address those problems. The table is useful for both students and instructors or service providers.

WRITING PROBLEMS	INDIVIDUALIZED STRATEGIES AND SUPPORTS FOR LEARNERS	CLASSROOM METHODS FOR INSTRUCTORS AND SERVICE PROVIDERS
Handwriting is illegible	Tape recorder and earphones Microcomputer and word processing program	Course handouts Note takers
Cannot stay on line	Microcomputer and word processing program	.
Has difficulty copying letters or words	Tape recorder Graphic organizers	Special arrangements for assignments and exams, such as a scribe
Writes and prints in the same assignment	Tape recorder and earphones Microcomputer and word processing program	Special arrangements for assignments and exams such as a scribe
Writing is slow	Tape recorder and earphones	Audiovisual equipment
Omits capital letters and punctuation	Diary for self monitoring Special needs or individual counseling Peer tutors	.
Cannot write grammatically	Special needs or individual counseling Typing and editorial services Peer tutors Sentence combining	.
Cannot use dictionary	Special needs or individual counseling Microcomputer, word processing program, and word prediction program	.
Has severe spelling problems	Use of the Horn method Peer tutors Electronic computerized dictionaries, especially those with voice output Microcomputer, word processing program, and word prediction program Special needs or individual counseling and diary of errors / corrections Use of alphabetized index cards Editorial services	Highlight errors when evaluating written work
Spells the same word different ways	Microcomputer with spell check and word prediction programs Diary for self monitoring	.
Cannot retain information heard in lecture	Special needs or individual counseling Columnar note taking like the Cornell method Signaling and highlighting Tape record lectures	Audiovisual and multiple methods of presentation
Has difficulty deciding what to include in meeting or lecture notes	Graphic organizers Point-form lists Signaling and highlighting Pre-class preparation	Graphic organizers for class activities Point-form display on overhead projector Advance organizers to show topics to be covered Identification of what is most and least important
Has difficulty developing graphic organizers for Prewriting planning	Sequence lists (point-form) Sequence charting Peer tutors Special needs or individual counseling	Graphic organizers for lectures and exam questions Advance organizers for class work
Cannot select main ideas to include in written assignments	Graphic organizers Sequence lists Signaling and highlighting Sentence combining Use of index cards	Graphic organizers for class work Advance planners to show progress
Has difficulty putting sentences and paragraphs together	Sentence combining Peer tutors Graphic organizers such as sequence charting Use of index cards or large chart paper and markers	Feedback on assignments
Has problems reviewing, editing, and self monitoring written text	Signaling and highlighting Microcomputer and spell check or grammar check programs Tape recorder and earphones Peer tutors Editing services	Specific feedback on assignments Refer to advisor or for counseling
Pays little attention to layout, spacing, or indentation	Typing and editing services Peer tutors	Modeling in class

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Typing papers and essays has become much easier since the advent of personal computers and word processors. Compared to manual typewriters, computers offer several benefits. The typed documents are very easy to revise without retyping the entire paper. Formatting may be quickly and easily altered. Many tasks (e.g., footnoting, pagination) are done automatically by the computer when instructed. Students can use a computer for composing the first draft instead of writing in longhand, or they may use a computer to type the final draft.

Word Processing Capabilities

Most word processing programs have the following capabilities that are useful for typing written assignments. Directions for using the tools differ from one program to another; refer to the software manuals or on-line help menus for instructions.

• automatic footnoting

• automatic pagination

• justification (right, left, both, centered)

• line spacing (single, space-and-a-half, double)

• headers and footers (information entered at the top and bottom of every page)

• word wrap (computer skips to next line automatically at the end of the previous line)

• tables, graphs, and charts may be added into the text

• multiple font sizes and styles may be used in one document

• spell checker, grammar checker, and thesaurus
• type print may be changed (e.g., italics, underlining, boldface, etc.)

• widows and orphans (single lines at the beginning or end of a page) are automatically moved to another page

After a document has been keyed into the computer and corrections made, the paper is ready for printing. Printing instructions that must be given to the computer include:

• number of copies

• print quality (draft, faster, or best)

• page orientation (horizontal or vertical)

• automatic or manual paper feed

• pages to be printed (all pages or a range of pages)

• paper size (8.5 x 11 or 8.5 x 14)

• Save Your Work Often

  When working on the computer it is very important to save the document often, especially during electrical storms. If the power surges or goes out, all information that was entered or changed since the document was last saved will be lost forever. Some machines allow you to do automatic saves every so often, like every 10 minutes.

• Use Your Own Disks

  Save documents on your own personal disks when using public access computers. If you save on the computer hard drive, other people may access the document, stealing or changing it, or the document may be deleted by computer lab operators.

• Use Meaningful File Names

  Documents composed on the computer must be named in order to be saved. It is very helpful to use meaningful albeit brief names for documents. The name might include an abbreviation of the course and a one-word summary of the assignment or topic. For example, a critique and review of The Grapes of Wrath might be titled GrapesReview. A marketing take-home test might be named MarketTest1. Some programs allow only a certain number of characters (e.g., up to eight) in the document names; others do not allow spaces or symbols like # and &. Check the software manual or on-line help menus for specific guidelines.

• Make Back-Up Copies

  Because computer disks and hard drives sometimes "crash," erasing some or all of the contents, always make a back-up copy of the document on a separate computer disk. Put a label with one's name and address on the disks in case they are lost. Always make and keep a copy of the printed document as well.

• Start Early

  Begin the process of keying and printing the documents early in case there is an equipment malfunction or the terminals and printers are not available. This is especially important for people using public access computers or student computer labs during peak hours (usually 1:00 to 4:00 pm) and during critical parts of the term like before finals week.

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Strategies for writing an argument paper are quite different from strategies used to actually argue with someone. To argue in a paper the material must be presented carefully and with some logical reasoning. A well-supported argument will take into account other points of view; arguing in a paper takes into account both inquiry and advocacy, or presenting a position in a thoughtful and convincing manner. Below are listed some basic argumentative writing strategies (K. Buchanan, CAL). Also refer to the comparison-contrast definition approach to developing a paragraph, which is discussed elsewhere in this page.

Making a Claim

A claim is a point of view, thesis, or conclusion the writer states about the subject. In an argument paper, the writer's argument is presented in the thesis statement. Claims can be grouped according to the kinds of questions they wish to have answered. Five types of claims are listed below.

• Claim of judgment: What is your position on the issue?

• Claim of policy: What should be done to solve the problem?

• Claim of value: What is something worth?

• Claim of cause: Why is something the way it is?

• Claim of interpretation: What does something mean?

• Clarity

  Avoid vagueness and ambiguity when writing a claim. Be as clear and exact as possible. State the claim explicitly, so the reader is not left to infer his or her own meanings.

• Qualification

  The forcefulness with which the writer makes the claim should be appropriate to the writing situation. If one qualifies the forcefulness of the claim, the reader will take the claim and the writing more seriously. Words such as "probably," "very likely," "apparently," and "it seems" help to qualify a claim.

• Arguability

  In order to create an arguable claim, the statement must have some sense of truth or be generally accepted as true. The claim must also be arguable on the basis shared by both the writer and the reader. Facts are unarguable as claims because they are objectively verifiable. In other words, facts can be verified and checked out via an authority or a reference book, or through the actual observance.

Reasons are considered the main point of the claim. Many times reasons answer to the question "Why do you make that claim?" Evidence and reasons may take a number of forms, as described below.

• Facts

  These are used to support evidence. A fact means to define a statement as true. Facts relate back to what can be measured or checked out. A reliable fact depends on the accuracy and completeness of the statement as well as the reliability of the source.

• Statistics

  The use of statistics, through percentages, averages or charts, is generally effective.

• Authorities

  Testimonials from persons of authority or experts should be cited often.

• Anecdotes

  Brief, factual or hypothetical stories are an effective way to make a point.

• Scenarios

  This is a narrative description of something that might happen. It brings about the questions and answers of "What if ..." questions.

• Cases

  Cases are used to summarize the observations of people.

• Textual Evidence

  If one uses the textbook or some type of reference material to make a point, quote from it often to back up the claims or points

Always anticipate counterarguments that the reader might consider. A counterargument includes any objections, challenges, questions, or alternatives to the claims, evidence, or reasons given in the paper. There are three basic strategies for accomplishing this task: acknowledging, accommodating, and refuting counterarguments.

• Acknowledging

  Let readers know that you are aware of their questions and objections.

• Accommodating

  Accept into your argument all or part of the reader's objections.

• Refuting

  Express viewpoints that oppose the reader's counterarguments.

Practice the strategies by writing a claim of judgment that asserts your position on one of the following controversial issues.

• flag burning

• working part-time during college

• censorship of music lyrics

• drug testing for college athletes

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When one analyzes and evaluates two or more things, the concept of comparing and contrasting them becomes apparent. To compare two or more items means to examine closely how the items are similar or alike. To contrast two or more items is to examine carefully how the items are dissimilar or different. Comparing and contrasting are more than writing styles; they are ways of thinking or perceiving the world (K. Buchanan, CAL).

Organizing a Compare-Contrast Paper

There are two ways to organize a compare-contrast paper: chunking and sequencing.

• Chunking

  Each item is presented separately. The main points about one item are discussed in one paragraph or section before the main points of another item are covered. Chunking emphasizes the items themselves.

• Sequencing

  All items are compared point-by-point. One main point or characteristic of all items is discussed in one paragraph or section before the second main point is presented. Sequencing emphasizes characteristics of the items.

• Chunking Example
  • Shield Volcanoes
    • low relief
    • quiet eruptions
    • low viscosity lava
    • ocean-ocean boundaries
    • example: Hawaii
  • Composite Volcanoes
    • high relief
    • explosive eruptions
    • high viscosity lava
    • ocean-continent boundaries
    • example: Mt. St. Helens
• Sequencing Example
  • Shape or relief
    • shield - low
    • composite - high
  • Eruptions
    • shield - quiet
    • composite - explosive
  • Lava viscosity
    • shield - low
    • composite - high
  • Location
    • shield - ocean-ocean boundaries
    • composite - ocean-continent boundaries
  • Examples
    • shield - Hawaii
    • composite - Mt. St. Helens

A special way to compare items is through analogy. This approach involves using one part to explain the other. Analogies are tricky. They may first seem useful, but they may be misleading or break down early in the process of writing.

Application

Pick one of the following subjects and write several sentences comparing and contrasting the items. Be careful to limit the basis of the comparison and underline the sentence stating that basis. The use of analogies is optional.

• travel by bus versus subway

• getting what you want through flattery versus persuasion

• soccer and ballet

• baseball and softball

• creationism versus evolution

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Dwyer (1992) describes a strategy that encourages students to write effective and well-organized responses to reading assignments. The strategy is based on a journalism model that organizes information from most important to next most important to nonessential details to interesting details (Dwyer, 1992, p. 226). This is graphically illustrated below (Dwyer, 1992, p. 227).

Main ideas or most important information

Important supporting information

Supporting information

Supporting information

Detail

Successful implementation of this strategy requires modeling of responses to various reading assignments. "Providing models proved to be much more effective than writing on students' papers. The rhythm of writing in the journalism format seemed to come with extensive practice, much of it in class" (Dwyer, 1992, p. 227).

The approach is useful because it may be applied to any type of writing assignment as well as any manner of reading task. It encourages students to organize information and to include more information in written responses to questions about the reading.

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A thesaurus is a reference book outlining synonyms and antonyms of a wide range of words. Thesauri are helpful in the writing process in that they enable the writer to vary word choice, making for a more interesting paper.

Structured much like dictionaries, thesauri entries are arranged alphabetically. Each entry is followed by lists of words with similar meanings and words with opposite meanings. For example, the entry for "busy" might contain these synonyms - active, engrossed, hurried, engaged, diligent, and officious - and these antonyms - idle, lazy, and inactive.

Most word processing programs offer on-line thesaurus capabilities. Typically, the user highlights the word to be referenced and selects the thesaurus option; the computer then displays a list of synonyms from which the user may choose. Refer to the user's manual for your processing program or on-line help for specific instructions.

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In order for an essay to be understandable and enjoyable to the reader, the writer must employ some basic elements for enhancing clarity. Writing clearly may be accomplished by using thesis or forecasting statements, paragraphing and topic sentences, cohesive devices, and transitions (K. Buchanan, CAL).

Thesis and Forecasting Statements

Thesis and forecasting statements direct the reader to ideas and organization. The thesis statement, which usually is placed in the first paragraph or section of the paper, is a single sentence or group of sentences that state the writer's main idea. This statement operates by letting the reader know what is the most important and most general idea among the writer's many ideas and observations. Thesis statements direct the reader's attention to the one idea that brings all other ideas and details into focus.

The forecasting statement is a special kind of thesis statement. It not only identifies the thesis but gives an overview of the way the thesis will be developed.

Paragraphing and Topic Sentences

To avoid confusion when reading, information related to one topic or idea should be arranged into one paragraph. Paragraphing signals to the reader that, while ideas may be related to the thesis, they are different enough that they require placement in a paragraph of their own. Without the use of para- graphs, the meanings of sentences seem to be "suspended" or connected too closely to other sentences.

Topic sentences are an important component of paragraphing. The topic sentence is to a paragraph what the thesis statement is to the entire essay. Topic sentences focus and orient the reader on the main idea of the paragraph. The function of the topic sentence, then, is to introduce the new paragraph and to state the main point of the paragraph. The main point may be a new aspect related to the paper's thesis or it may be a more detailed discussion of an aspect that already has been introduced.

Each paragraph should have a strategically placed topic sentence. Stating the topic at the beginning of the paragraph has the advantage of alerting the reader to how the paragraph is going to develop. When placed at the end of a paragraph, the topic sentence serves to summarize the information. Positioning the topic sentence elsewhere is tricky and is not recommended.

Topic sentences take a variety of forms, several of which are discussed below.

• Announcing the topic

  The topic is stated simply and directly. For example, "The polar bear walks in a way all its own."

• Forecasting subtopics

  The topic sentence gives the reader a detailed look at the material that will follow throughout the course of the writing. For example, "The progression, pace, and rhythm of the polar bear's gate makes it very unique."

• Asking a rhetorical question

  The topic is put in question-answer format such that the question asked in one sentence is followed by the answer in the next sentence. For example, "How is a polar bear's gate unique? It differs with respect to progression, pace, and rhythm."

• Reflecting

  Not all topic sentences point out what will follow; some refer back to earlier sentences. These often begin with words like "nevertheless," "like," "on the other hand," "further," "so," "too," "in addition," and "not only." For example, "Not only is a polar bear's ambulatory progression unique, but its pace differs as well."

Transitions or connectives act as a bridge to connect one paragraph, sentence, clause, or word with another. There are three types of transitions or connectives.

• Logical relationships

  These transitions help the reader to follow the logic of an argument. For example, paragraphs on the history of archaeology might be connected using the following transition: "Despite the growing popularity of hypothetico-deductive research in archaeology, some researchers have opted for a more interpretive and reflective approach."

• Temporal relationships

  A special form of logical transition, temporal relationships use a sequence or a progression of time to link ideas. For example, "After the end of World War II, the United States experienced rapid economic growth through the 1950's."

• Spatial relationships

  With spatial relationships, the writer orients the reader to the objects in a scene. For example, "Moving past the window and toward the desk, Joann spotted the book on the coffee table."

Cohesive devices connect ideas to one another, providing coherence, clarity, and flow. They help the reader to develop a "train of thought" by connecting words and phrases throughout the essay. Cohesiveness is achieved in a number of ways.

• Pronoun reference

  To refer to a noun that precedes or follows, substitute with an appropriate pronoun. This reduces redundancy without sacrificing clarity. For example, write "As she bent to pick up the coin, Judy noticed that her shoe was not laced" instead of "As Judy bent to pick up the coin, Judy noticed that her shoe was not laced."

• Word repetition

  If pronouns are likely to confuse the reader, repeat the nouns instead. This might be the case if two nouns are used in the sentence. For example, "Jose and Raul ran to the window. Gasping in astonishment, Jose [not he] threw open the sash."

• Synonyms

  Synonyms, or words with similar meanings, are effective for connecting important ideas.

• Sentence structure repetition

  This cohesive device involves repeating the same sentence structure in order to emphasize the connections among the ideas.

• Collocation

  Collocations are words that occur in expected ways around a certain topic. For example, these words might be used in together: baseball, diamond, home run, and inning.

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The DEFENDS approach to writing is a task-specific writing strategy that is used along with organizational forms (REFERENCE). DEFENDS guides students through the writing process, beginning with the planning stage and progressing through organizing ideas and proofreading. It assumes that research has been completed. The seven steps in the strategy are discussed below.

1. D decide on goals and theme
   • Decide who will read the paper and what you hope will happen when they do.
   • Decide what kind of information you need to communicate.
   • Decide what your theme will be about.
   • Note the theme on your planning form.

2. E estimate main ideas and details
   • Think of at least two main ideas that will explain your theme.
   • Make sure the main ideas are different.
   • Note the main ideas on your planning form.
   • Note at least three details that can be used to explain each main idea.

3. F igure the best order of main ideas and details
   • Decide which main idea to write about first, second, etc. and note them on the planning form.
   • For each main idea, note the best order for presenting the details on the planning form.
   • Make sure the orders are logical.
   • Refer to the section in this page on Structure and Organization for more details.

4. E xpress the theme in the first sentence
   • The first sentence of your essay should state what the essay is about.
   • For longer papers, the theme should be stated somewhere in the first paragraph or section.

5. N note each main idea and supporting points
   • Note your first main idea using a complete sentence; explain this main idea using the details you ordered earlier.
   • Tell yourself positive statements about your writing and tell yourself to write more.
   • Repeat for each of the other main ideas.

6. D rive home the message in the last sentence
   • Restate what your theme was about in the last sentence or last paragraph.
   • Be sure to use different wordings when repeating your theme.

7. S search for errors and correct them
   • Look for different kinds of errors in your essay and correct them:
     • S et editing goals
     • E examine your essay to see if it makes sense
     • A ask yourself whether your message will be clear to others
     • R eveal picky errors (capitalization, punctuation, spelling, etc.)
     • C opy over neatly or retype
     • H ave a last look for errors

   • More Proofreading strategies are discussed elsewhere in this page.

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This self-regulated strategy for writing was developed by Harris and Graham (date) and is summarized by J. Scheltz (CAL). The article begins with a survey of previous research and practices in writing and instruction. The goals, characteristics, and components of the self-regulated strategy are discussed. The authors then examine how one teacher incorporated the self-regulated strategy within the writing process in her classroom.

There are three goals and components of self-regulated strategy development in the writing process. One goal is to assist in mastering higher level cognitive processes involved in composing. Another goal is to further develop self-regulated use of effective strategies. Development of positive attitudes about writing is the third goal.

Self-regulated strategy development has six characteristics: individuation, collaboration (between student and teacher), mastery-based instruction, anticipatory instruction, enthusiasm and a support network, and developmental enhancement (strategy knowledge on the teacher's part).

While not intended as a "cookbook" list, Harris and Graham identify five stages of instruction: preskill development, initial conference (to identify instructional goals and their significance), discussion of the composition strategy, modeling the strategy and self-instructions, and mastery of the strategy.

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Gauthier's (1992) strategy to increase student awareness of punctuation is intended for use by instructors in one-on-one situations, but it may be modified for other situations. The strategy involves providing the student with passages of text lacking punctuation marks and asking him/her to add appropriate punctuation. Both visual and auditory processing of information by the student is encouraged. As Gauthier (1992, p. 402) notes, "in addition to the student acquiring awareness as to the importance of punctuation, s/he also receives opportunities to increase competency in listening, speaking, and reading."

1. Choose a book and prepare special sheets

   Excerpt a short (100-200 words) passage from a book of the student's choosing. If the student demonstrates problems with a certain type of punctuation, the instructor may select a passage with a number of that punctuation type. Or the instructor may wish to select a passage with a number of punctuation types. Rewrite or type the passage without the punctuation marks.

2. Explain, do, and discuss the activity

   Give the rewritten passage to the student. Read the punctuationless passage aloud, paying special attention to vocal cues to the missing punctuation. As the student reads along and listens, he/she should attempt to insert the missing punctuation marks. If necessary, read through the passage twice, asking the student to add the punctuation the second time through. Compare the student's punctuation sheet with the original. "Differences are not to be viewed as errors, but rather as opportunities for discussion. Indeed, some junctures will provide chances for you and the student to speculate as to how the same unit of text could have been punctuated differently" (Gauthier, 1992, p. 401). The activity may end at this point, or you may go on to step three.

3. Reverse the roles

   The instructor selects a book and the student chooses and rewrites a short passage from it. Then the student reads the passage aloud while the instructor adds the punctuation marks.

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When writing about a person, writers should consider creative and innovative ways to describe the subject. Rather than focus on the usual traits like physical appearance and personality alone, consider using the following descriptive approaches.

Once a subject has been selected, look at the list of characteristics below. Try to stretch your imagination, using all the information you know about his person to describe him/her accurately. This makes the process more interesting for the writer and the results are more engaging to the reader.

What would this person be if he/she were a/an . . .

• color?
• animal?
• type of music?
• make of car?
• type of weather?
• subject in school?
• sound?
• flower?
• season?
• kind of book?
• famous person?
• time of day or night?

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There are two ways to sort through material: classifying and dividing (K. Buchanan, CAL). Classifying means to combine items into a number of certain groups and to label each new group. Dividing means to place certain parts in order to consider the elements of each part separately.

Classification and division serve as means of organizing. They help to create a framework for the material being presented, whether it be a paragraph, essay, or paper. Other organization strategies include definition, illustration, and contrast.

Principles of Division

• The divisions must be appropriate to your writing purpose.

• The division shouldn't simply divide your information into smaller bits of information. Rather, it should help you to make some specific point in your writing.

• The division should be consistent, exclusive, and complete.

• Consistency - The resulting parts must be based on the same principle of division.

• Exclusiveness - Parts resulting from the division should not overlap.

• Completeness - No important parts should be omitted in the division (Axelrod, et al., 1991).

When a writer divides information into parts, special care needs to be taken in order for the reader to follow this division easily. Arrange the parts spatially, moving from inside to outside for example, or temporally, moving across time.

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The CAL staff developed the following strategy lists for tutors and other facilitators who help students with writing tasks. The tips are arranged according to the stages of the writing process.

PreWriting or Planning Stage

• Brainstorming

  The student verbalizes ideas while the tutor records the student's thoughts. At this stage, tutor and student may brainstorm ideas for the topic or approaches to the chosen topic.

• Questioning

  The tutor asks the student questions about his/her chosen topic.

• Requirements

  The requirements of the writing assignment - topics, purpose, audience, references, citation style, manuscript format - are discussed to insure understanding.

• Listing

  The tutor helps the student compile a list of the points he/she wants to include in the paper.

• Starter phrases

  The tutor gives the student starter phrases like "It seems like ..." or "I feel that ..." or suggests that the student begin by restating part of the essay question.

• Association

  The tutor discusses the subject within the context of an entire unit that interests the student, or the tutor helps the student associate the subject with something in which the student is interested.

• Verbalization

  The student talks aloud to the tutor about his/her ideas.

• Plagiarism

  The tutor provides the student with information about what plagiarism is and how to avoid it, allowing time for discussion and questions.

• Informal writing and outlining

  The tutor has the student write informally, in disjointed sentences, what he/she wants to say. These thoughts become the topic ideas. The student then puts these ideas in order. The result is a basic outline of the purpose and a sequence of what the student hopes to convey in the writing.

  Writing or Drafting Stage

• Verbalization

  The student reads the draft aloud to the tutor, or the tutor reads the draft to the student.

• Tape recording

  The student records his/her ideas on audio cassettes. Then he/she listens to the recorded ideas and copies them onto paper.

• Topic sentences

  The student and tutor concentrate on developing topic sentences. Then the student fills in the details.

  Revising Stage

• Checklists

  The tutor provides the student with proofing checklists to guide him/her in the revising process.

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The following paragraph writing strategy is a three-step procedure for paragraph development. It divides the writing process into manageable parts, encourages students to develop ideas over time, and provides a purpose for writing. The three steps are prewriting, rough draft development, and final draft completion. These are the same steps used in writing an entire paper.

PreWriting

The process of prewriting encompasses several tasks:

• Choose a topic

  Topic ideas are generated by brainstorming, webbing, or journal writing.

• Narrow the topic

  Generate who, what, when, where, why, and how questions.

• Write topic sentence

  What is the main point of the essay or paper?

• Gather information

  Make use of observation, research, brainstorming, and sharing.

• Organize ideas

  Arrange ideas from most to least important, from most to least controversial, or from simpliest to most difficult.

At the stage, the student puts his/her ideas on paper. Don't be afraid to experiment and improve ideas while writing rough drafts. Don't fuss with spelling, grammar, and other details as these may be brushed up while editing. Focus on getting the ideas out instead. Start with the paragraphs that will comprise the body of the paper or essay, and then write the beginning and ending paragraphs. It may be necessary to repeat the drafting and editing process a number of times.

Final Draft

Once the paragraphs are in the desired form, do a final proofing and evaluation of the finished product. Make sure that transitions effectively connect the different paragraphs. Refer to the proofing strategies, especially the Paragraph Checking strategy, discussed elsewhere in this page for specific ideas.

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The keyhole strategy (REFERENCE) helps writers effectively organize and develop paragraphs in short essays or lengthy papers. The keyhole analogy reminds the writer to begin with general statements, to present more specific information related to the topic, and to generalize again at the end.

In the beginning paragraph (introduction), the writer begins with a broad generalization and then moves to a specific statement of the thesis at the end of the paragraph.

In the middle paragraphs (body), the writer presents the weakest or simplest arguments first. Lead up to the strongest or most complex arguments, making the very strongest idea the last paragraph or sentence. Illustrate the main points with facts and examples, using vivid and stimulating language. The body of the paper should consist of standard paragraphs, each with a topic sentence.

In the last paragraph, reword the thesis statement. Gradually move from specific to general, ending with a memorable clincher as the final sentence.

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Gallo and Rink (1985) describe six methods of paragraph development:classification,definition,comparison-contrast,compare-contrast definition,process, and description. These strategies help writers develop the ideas in a paragraph through clear thought and organization.

Classification

"Classification is the process by which large bodies of information are divided into smaller related groups on the basis of some principle of categorizing" (Gallo & Rink, 1985, p.151). The classification approach is effective for both single-paragraph essays or multipara graph writings. As a rule of thumb, the following information should be included in a classification paragraph.

• provide a topic sentence that identifies the main point of the paragraph
• identify the classes or groups
• define or explain each class
• give examples of each class
• provide a final sentence that summarizes the classes and restates the topic sentence

• Based on their mineral composition and texture, rocks are divided into three types. Rocks that form from melted lava or magma are called igneous rocks. They are often associated with volcanoes or batholiths. Composed primarily of silicate minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and amphibole, igneous rocks form above or below the earth's surface. Examples of igneous rocks are basalt, granite, obsidian, and andesite. The second rock type, metamorphic rocks, forms as a result of high temperatures and/or pressures. This alteration results in the growth of new minerals or the reorientation of minerals. Slate, marble, and gneiss are examples of metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the weathered debris of other rocks. The process involves chemical or mechanical weathering of rocks to form sediments, deposition of the sediments, and cementation of the sediments. Commonly formed in water, sedimentary rocks are often stratified or layered and they may contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, shale, limestone, and conglomerate. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks differ in terms of their composition and texture.

• How many kinds of love are there?
• What are the basic types of running backs in football?
• What are the basic types of movies?
• What are the basic ways to get money?
• What are the basic ways for obtaining knowledge?

Used in single-paragraph or multipara graph essays, the definition approach to paragraph development allows the writer to explain or define meanings of words, terms, types, or qualities. The definition approach is particularly effective if the writer cannot assume that the reader has preexisting knowledge of the subject or if the writer is using the term or idea in novel ways. Gallo and Rink's (1985) tips for the definition method are given below.

• define words or ideas that are widely used and therefore have various or confusing meanings
• for complex words or ideas, reduce the concept to its essential elements or focus on its most significant aspect
• use a question as the topic sentence of the paragraph
• define the word or idea by explaining what or who fits the definition
• define the word or idea by explaining what or who does not fit the definition

• (1) Who were the pioneers? (2) Who were the men who left their homes and went into the wilderness? (3) A man rarely leaves a soft spot and goes deliberately in search of hardship and privation. (4) People become attached to the places they live in; they drive roots. (5) A change of habitat is a painful act of uprooting. (6) A man who has made good and has a standing in his community stays put. (7) The successful businessmen, farmers, and workers usually stayed where they were. (8) Who then left for the wilderness and the unknown? (9) Obviously those who had not made good; men who went broke and never amounted to much; men who though possessed of abilities were too impulsive to stand the daily grind; men who were slaves of their appetites - drunkards, gamblers, and woman-chasers; outcasts - fugitives from justice and ex-jailbirds. (10) There were no doubt some who went in search of health - men suffering with TB, asthma, heart trouble. (11) Finally there was a sprinkling of young and middle-aged men in search of adventure.

• Define some sort of ideal: a human being, a spouse, a teacher, a student, a vacation, or a house.
• Define the successful professional athlete.
• Define families whose income is below the poverty level.
• Define in Hoffer's style one of the following: hard hats, republicans, democrats, liberals, rednecks, etc.
• Define an active member of the Third World in a college.

"In a comparison-contrast paragraph two arguments or sets of facts, or things, or persons are set up side by side and explained or described by showing their differences or their similarities and differences ... . Comparison-contrast is an excellent form in which to state an argument [because] it can lodge both sides of the argument (pro and con) under the same roof ... . Often, too, comparison-contrast works well in developing description. ... The beauty of comparison-contrast is that, in the first place, it gives the writer a ready-made method that is easy to follow and, in the second place, it lends itself well to almost any sort of idea development because the appearance or nature of almost any single thing is sharpened when it is placed alongside its opposite or reverse" (Gallo & Rink, 1985, p. 156-158). Here are some tips for the comparison-contrast approach to paragraph development.

• cover each point for both topics in turn (a strategy called sequencing)
• cover one topic completely before discussing the second topic (a strategy called chunking)
• it is not always necessary to make the same points for each topic when chunking
• for more comparison-contrast ideas, see Writing a Compare-Contrast Paper
• use cue words to indicate similarities (similarly, likewise) and differences (on the other hand, in contrast, however)

• Computer information may be stored in a number of ways, two of which are primary and secondary memory. Primary memory is internal to the computer, and often consists of chips built into the machine. The most common form of primary memory is RAM, or random access memory, which stores program instructions and data currently being used. Information kept in RAM will be lost if the machine is turned off. Another form of primary memory is ROM, or read only memory. The contents of ROM, like the operating system, are not lost if the power is turned off. Primary memory can be quite large, up to hundreds of megabytes on a personal computer. Secondary memory, on the other hand, is external to the computer, so it is transportable, and usually takes the form of floppy disks and magnetic tape. Secondary memory is different from primary memory in that information is recorded semipermanently and not in RAM or ROM. Secondary memory devices tend to be more limited in storage capacity than primary memory devices.

• Compare and contrast an American-built car and a foreign-built car.
• Compare and contrast your knowledge of some subject with popular misconceptions about the subject, such as the allegedly high cost of school sports and the truth as you know it or the popular ideas about nutrition and the facts you know about them.
• Compare and contrast gossip about a person and the truth as you know it.
• Compare and contrast a stereotype about a group of people and what you know about the group.

Several paragraph development techniques may be combined to make a point in a paragraph. As Gallo and Rink (1985, p. 159) note, "a mixture of comparison-contrast and definition is often quite effective in developing a paragraph of argument." Tips for developing this type of paragraph are listed below.

• start with a topic sentence
• place the concise definition early in the paragraph
• use the sequencing or chunking technique to discuss the similarities and differences

• I think that the white man treated the American Indian very badly, but not monstrously. First, as applied to men, the word monstrous, by definition, means abnormal or freakish, and therefore an unhuman kind of badness. According to what I have learned in history, the white man's treatment of the Indian was traditional and typical of the way any conquering groups treated a defeated native group. When the Aryans from the north conquered the native people of India around 1600 B.C., they enslaved the defeated population (who had a superior culture, by the way) and started the caste system, which imposed artificial inequalities on the conquered people. When the Romans defeated a foreign country, they usually gave the defeated people two choices - enslavement or death. ... Therefore, I believe that the white man's behavior toward the American Indian was traditional and typical of human beings doing unjust, cruel, and terrible things but not typical of monsters. So we don't have to go to the nonhuman, abnormal monsters; the badness of human beings is bad enough, and the white man in America behaved with typically human, not monstrous, badness.

• React to the proposition that baseball or another sport is like ballet. Include a definition of ballet in your paragraph.
• Define a successful person and then compare and contrast the characteristics of successful and unsuccessful people.
• Define a unsuccessful but good person and compare him/her with an unsuccessful bad person.

The process approach to paragraph development is an effective way to describe procedures or step-by-step information. "A process paragraph is a paragraph of instructions, and the order of development should be the orderly steps in which the process is to be carried out, or in which the thing is to be done or made" (Gallo and Rink, 1985, p. 161). Tips for writing a process paragraph are as follows.

• plan out the paragraph with flow charts or another organizational aid
• begin with a topic sentence that identifies the process to be described
• use cue words (such as first, second, next, then, or finally) to signal when a new step is being described

• Time management is a critical skill for students to master in college. Managing one's time is easy if one follows these important steps for developing weekly time planners. First, make a list of all academic assignments due in the upcoming week as well as the social activities for the upcoming week. Then prioritize the list, numbering each item in terms of how important it is. For example, the most important activity should be numbered "1," the next most important task is "2," and so on. The third step involves breaking each task into smaller parts. A research paper assignment, for instance, might be divided into six parts: library research, taking notes from reference materials, organizing ideas, writing a rough draft, proofreading, and writing a final draft. The next step is estimating how much time it will take to complete each task. Step five involves setting aside time in one's schedule to complete each task, starting with the highest priority tasks. The last step is often omitted but is very important. One must monitor or evaluate how well one sticks to the time management planner.

• Write a process paragraph to describe how to throw a party.
• Write a process paragraph to describe how to make a piece of clothing like a dress or shirt.
• Write a process paragraph to describe how to read a book.
• Write a process paragraph to describe how to prepare for a camping trip, a fishing trip, or another kind of trip.
• Write a process paragraph to describe how to hang wallpaper or some other home improvement job.

Description involves thoroughly describing a person, place, or event without offering any judgments. The writer should strive to present a complete, accurate, and interesting description of the subject. Gallo and Rink (1985) state that "although description is simply 'telling it like it is,' it is always your job to interpret the experience and thoughtfully select and describe what is significant, revealing, and interesting about it" (p. 162). Tips for writing effective descriptive paragraphs are listed below.

• a topic sentence may be placed at the beginning or the end of the paragraph
• don't oversimplify the description
• avoid making judgments about the subject ("this is good" or "it was terrible") - just set the scene and let the reader draw his/her own conclusions
• arrange ideas in a simple, natural order

• It began as most parties do. The host scrambled to arrange enough seats for the guests. Despite days of preparation, the hostess worked feverently to assemble the food amidst a kitchen full of boiling pots, beeping timers, and melting ice. The dog barked from its confinement in the bedroom. But despite the initial confusion, things were in order when the guests arrived. The early arrivals, of course, wondered if they had come too soon so they offered to help with the arrangements. Since things were under control by that time, the first guests contributed by dispensing compliments to the host and hostess, helping to soothe their nerves. As more guests arrived, the sound levels in the house increased steadily. Howls of laughter and the chinking of ice in glasses permeated the space. Soon music blared and chairs were hastily tossed aside to make room for a make-shift dance floor. Lamp shades appeared everywhere they were not supposed to be. The singing, dancing, eating, and talking continued for hours. But the chimes of the grandfather clock announced that the time was growing late, and as quickly as they arrived, the guests issued their "Thanks" and said good night. At least the dog was happy to see the party come to a close.

• Write a paragraph to describe your home town.
• Write a paragraph to describe a season of the year.
• Write a paragraph to describe a family member.
• Write a paragraph to describe a holiday or tradition.
• Write a paragraph to describe a sporting event.

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The following proofing suggestions target mistakes commonly made in written assignments (based in part on Madraso 1993). The strategies may be used by individual students proofreading their own papers, or they may be used by students, instructors, or tutors when checking others' papers.

Poor Organization and Overall Strategy

To detect problems with paper structure and organization, read aloud or sub vocalize. Consider what kind of overall organization plan is used - spatial, chronological, or logical. Is the plan appropriate and consistent?

Sentence Structure

Read each sentence individually, asking if the sentence makes sense or not. If the sentence does not make sense, ask why. It may be related to punctuation, word choice, tense, or subject-predicate agreement.

Sentence Fragments

To detect sentence fragments, read the paper backwards sentence by sentence. Don't read word for word, but read whole sentences beginning with the last sentence of the paper. Consider whether or not each sentence makes sense by itself. Sentences that don't make sense should be rewritten or added to the prior or subsequent sentences.

Run-On Sentences

Look for sentences that contain a variety of related or unrelated ideas, that continue for several lines, or that should contain the word and . Break lengthy sentences into smaller ones using and , semicolons, or periods. The method chosen for fixing run-ons depends on content and the desired effect.

Comma Splices

Skim the paper, stopping at each comma. Read the portion of the sentence preceding the comma. If it makes sense by itself, read the words after the comma. If the second part makes sense by itself, use a coordinating conjunction (such as but or although ), period, or semicolon to correct the comma splice.

Normalizations

Proofing for normalizations involves two steps. First, skim the paper for the word of . Revise a sentence if the word preceding of has a verb form. For example, the sentence "I gave an explanation of the event" should be rewritten "I explained the event." Second, skim the paper for verbs to have , to make , and to be . If the nouns that follow these words have verb forms, use that verb instead. For example, "I made a suggestion that we leave" should be rewritten "I suggested that we leave."

Writing in the Passive Voice

Be on the lookout for verbs in the passive voice. To do so, skim the paper, looking for forms of the verb to be and past participles after verbs (past participles often end in -ed or -en). For example, "The criminal was sentenced to prison" is written in the passive voice. In these cases, ask who did the action in the past participle and decide if the sentence should be altered to reflect this. For example, the above sentence should be rewritten "The judge sentenced the criminal to prison." The subject of the sentence should always be the "doer" of the action.

Homophones

Skim the paper for common homophones, or words that sound the same but differ in spelling and meaning. Common homophones are there/their/they're and to/too/two. A more complete list in given in the See and Spell / Homophones section of this page.

Spelling Errors

To detect spelling errors, use the spell checker tool of most word processing programs, or read the paper backwards word for word. Look for known patterns.

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Reviewing drafts of a paper is more effective and efficient when the following guidelines are used. Ideally, someone other than the author should review the draft in order to obtain critical and more objective feedback. If another reader is unavailable, the author may ask him/herself the following questions in order to review the draft. The approach summarized here is quoted from REFERENCE.

1. Introduction
   • What does the opening accomplish?
   • How does it catch the reader's attention?
   • How else might the essay begin?
   • Can you suggest some better way of opening?

2. Thesis
   • Paraphrase the thesis of the essay in the form of a promise: "In this paper I will ... "
   • Does the draft fulfill the promise made by the thesis? Why or why not?

3. Supporting Points
   • List the main points made in the draft, in order of presentation. Then number them in order of interest to you, noting particularly parts that were not interesting to you or material that seemed unnecessary or added on for no reason. Review the main points one by one.
   • Do any need to be explained more fully or less fully?
   • Should any be eliminated?
   • Are any confusing or boring to you?
   • Do any make you want to know more?

4. Organization
   • What kind of overall organization plan is used - spatial, chronological, or logical?
   • Are the points presented in the most useful order?
   • What, if anything, might be moved, deleted, or added?
   • Can you suggest ways to make connections between paragraphs clearer and easier to follow?

5. Paragraphs
   • Which paragraphs are clearest and most interesting to read, and why?
   • Which ones are well developed, and how are they developed?
   • Which paragraphs need further development?
   • What kinds of information seem to be missing?

6. Sentences
   • Number each sentence. Then reread the draft, and choose the three to five sentences you consider the most interesting or the best written - stylistically effective, entertaining, or memorable for some other reason. Then choose the three to five sentences you see as weakest, whether boring, bland, or simply uninspired.
   • Are sentences varied in length, in structure, and in their openings?

7. Words
   • Mark words that are particularly effective - those that draw vivid pictures or provoke strong responses. Then mark words that are confusing or unclear.
   • Do any words need to be defined?
   • Are verbs active and vivid?

8. Tone
   • How does the writer come across in the draft - as serious, humorous, satiric, persuasive, passionately committed, highly objective?
   • Mark specific places in the draft where the writer's voice comes through most clearly.
   • Is the tone appropriate to the topic and the audience?
   • Is the tone consistent throughout the essay?
   • If not, is there reason for varying the tone?

9. Conclusion
   • Does the essay conclude in a memorable way, or does it seem to end abruptly or trail off into vagueness?
   • If you like the conclusion, tell why.
   • How else might the essay end?

10. Final Thoughts
    • What are the main strengths and weaknesses in the draft?
    • What surprised you - and why?
    • What was the single most important thing said?

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The table of proofreading marks and symbols will be scanned in the near future. In the meantime, you might try consulting a dictionary, such as The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language .

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Homophones are words that sound alike but are spelled differently and have different meanings. Spelling these words correctly in a paper or essay can impact profoundly another person's interpretation and understanding of the information. Commonly confused homophones are listed below (most are quoted from Lunenfeld and Lunenfeld, 1992, p. 38-39).

• affect - to influence ("Her speech affected the vote.")
  effect - the result ("His blue tie gave just the right effect with the gray suit.")

• all right - fine, satisfactory (not: Alrigh )
  a lot - quite a bit (not: Alot)
  Use less vague words in place of 'all right' and 'a lot'

• its - a possessive that does not require an apostrophe ("The dog enjoyed its bone.")
  it's - contraction of it is ("It's very hot today.")

• than - comparative ("One is bigger than the other.")
  then - time, place ("They left then to go to town.")

• there - location, place, movement ("The book is there on the table.")
  their - a possessive form of they ("This is their book.")
  their - plurality ("The twins want their book.")
  they're - contraction of they are ("They're going out tonight.")

• two - number ("There are two books.")
  too - in addition, furthermore, more, also ("The book is too long.")
  to - direction, motion, purpose, point approached or reached ("Come to my house.")

• your - possessive ("It is your book.")
  you're - contraction of you are ("You're an excellent student.")

• you / you're - avoid using in a paper when the intent is to refer to anyone other than the reader; use "one" instead ("One should always be good.")

• weather - climate ("The weather was chilly.")
  whether - regarding a decision ("Lin considered whether or not to go to the movies.")

• colon (:) - used to introduce a list of items ("Examples of sedimentary rocks are: limestone, shale, sandstone, conglomerate, rock salt, and bituminous coal.")
  semicolon (;) - separates two complete but related sentences ("Shale and sandstone are clastic sedimentary rocks; this means they are made of cemented sediments.")

• and / semicolon - avoid run-on sentences with many ideas hooked together by "and" or semicolon; break long sentences into several short ones instead

• precede - to come before in time or space ("Small tremors preceded the earthquake.")
  proceed - to go forward ("After the fire drill, the teacher proceeded with the lecture.")

• titles and foreign words - book titles and foreign words should be underlined or italicized; the titles of articles are set off in quotations

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Most word processing programs have several tools helpful in proofing written assignments. Documents keyed into the computer may be checked for spelling errors and grammatical mistakes. In addition, the search command allows one to check for repetitive use of words or phrases, and document-wide changes may be made using the replace command. Remember to save the document before and after running these tools.

Spell Checkers

The spell-checking tool compares the spelling of all words in the document to words listed in the master dictionary. In addition, the user may create a personal dictionary of commonly used words specific to his or her needs. When a word is encountered that is not in either dictionary, the user is given a list of alternative spellings for the word from which he or she may select. Spell checkers work best at finding words spelled almost correctly, as with simple typographical errors. Improperly used homophones are usually not detected by most spell checkers but may be caught by grammar checkers.

Grammar Checkers

This tool signals the user if it encounters repeated words (e.g. "The the dog is big"), mismatched nouns and verbs (e.g. "The dog are brown"), redundant sentence structure (e.g. the last five sentences began with "the"), and other grammatical errors and stylistic problems. The user is given a list of alter- natives for correcting the mistakes. The user can also indicate which of the many grammar rules the computer should check.

Search or Find Command

When writers know they make repeated mistakes in spelling, word use, or grammar, the search/find command may be used to check for incorrect usages. After selecting the command, the writer types in the word, phrase, or punctuation that may be problematic. The computer will scan the document, stopping at and highlighting those items indicated by the user. Common problems that may be checked using the search command are: misuse or overuse of I or you , excess commas,homophones, question marks, or number agreement.

Replace Command

To make document-wide changes, select the replace command. Type in the misspelled word or ungrammatical phrase and then enter the correct spelling or wording. If the computer is instructed to "replace" the items, it will scan the document, stop at and highlight the first item, and ask the user if they want to replace the highlighted item with the corrected one. If the computer is instructed to "replace all" the items, it will scan the document and correct all the errors on its own.

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A common concern among proofreaders who work with students' papers is how to help the author without contributing ideas, changing the meaning, or making judgments about the content. Facilitative questioning may help the author generate more ideas and clarify existing ones (REFERENCE).

Facilitative language should contain the following components and concepts:

• process
• focus on the writer
• predesignated role as reader
• reaction to the writing as a reader
• objective involvement
• sounding board: mirror
• evoking writer's ideas
• promotion of writer's ideas
• responsibility of the writer for the paper

FACILITATIVE LANGUAGE	NON-FACILITATIVE LANGUAGE
Describe the reader's reaction and request for more information	Making obvious judgments and contributions
"What is your idea here?"	"What's the purpose of the paper?"
"What do you want to say?"	"You should say ... "
"I get lost here."	"I think ... "
"I'm confused."	"That's confusing."
"This sentence tells me ... " - "Is that the right idea?" - "Is that what you mean?"	"I don't like that."
"What do you want the reader to know in this paragraph?"	"Does this sound better ... " "How does this sound?"
"How would you make this clear to someone outside of the field	"That doesn't belong here."
"How do these ideas connect?" "From what you said before, I expected to read ... "	"That doesn't work."
"What is the other side of the argument"	"That's not what I found."
"That sounds like a different topic to me."	"We're not going to get into that."

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The following checklist for proofreading targets the most common mistakes made by writers. The checklist may be used by students, tutors, and instructors when proofing one's own paper or someone else's paper.

Sentence Structure

When it is difficult to decide if a sentence is structured correctly or not, try reading the sentence aloud. Reading repeatedly will enable the reader to "hear" grammatical mistakes or awkwardly phrased passages.

• _____ Do I have run-on sentences?
• _____ Do I have sentence fragments?
• _____ Do I have any tense inconsistencies?
• _____ Do I logically match subject and predicate?
• _____ Do all pronouns clearly refer to one specific noun?
• _____ Are all comparisons complete?
• _____ Do I have subject-verb agreement?
• _____ Do I confuse adjectives with adverbs?

This section is based in part on Jean Hopper, Ohio Wesleyan University, 1992.

• _____ Is the thesis statement clear, limited, and specifically stated?
• _____ Is each major point in a separate paragraph or section?
• _____ Does each paragraph have a topic sentence as a controlling idea?
• _____ Is each paragraph sufficiently developed?
• _____ Is each sentence in a paragraph related to the topic sentence?
• _____ Are transitions between ideas used effectively?
• _____ Is the information presented from a consistent point of view?
• _____ Is there an adequate conclusion?
• _____ Are opinions and viewpoints adequately supported by examples, statistics, and testimony?

Use rhetorical questions sparingly to make them most effective. Avoid using cliches, idioms, slang, contractions, and terms like I and you .

• _____ Do my chosen words suit my meanings?
• _____ Do I overuse any word or phrase?
• _____ Do I avoid starting every sentence with "the"?
• _____ Am I being too wordy?
• _____ Do I have any vague or obvious statements?

Use exclamation points carefully as they tend to remove a serious attitude from the paper. Use colons and semicolons appropriately.

• _____ Periods
• _____ Question marks
• _____ Exclamation marks
• _____ Ellipses
• _____ Commas
• _____ Semicolons
• _____ Colons
• _____ Dashes
• _____ Parantheses
• _____ Brackets
• _____ Apostrophes
• _____ Underlining
• _____ Capitals
• _____ Abbreviations
• _____ Spelling
• _____ Numbers
• _____ Hyphenation

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Ever played the game "20 Questions?" Before handing in a final draft of your essay or paper, ask yourself these twenty-one questions to insure that your work is complete, clear, and convincing. The questions (except 6 and 8) are quoted from REFERENCE.

Conceptual Revision

1. Do I have a clear, properly limited, and interesting thesis?

   If you don't, the explanation will usually be that you have been "covering the subject" rather than making a point. You need to scan your draft for the germ of an idea that can become a new thesis; and you must be ready to discard whole pages of prose that looked more or less relevant to your old, inadequate thesis. The belated discovery of a "real" thesis always requires major rewriting.

2. Have I adequately supported my thesis?

   The support, remember, must be there on the page, not filed away in your head.

3. Have I dealt with probable objections to my thesis?

   The more controversial your thesis, the greater the need to answer objections. The most efficient means of answering them, of course, is to take them into account in the very formulation of your thesis. That is, avoid unnecessary quarrels by making more modest claims than you first intended to.

   Organizational Revision

4. Is my thesis conspicuous enough?

   Having taken the trouble to devise a strong thesis, you want to be sure your reader will recognize it in time to follow your reasoning. Is it prominently placed in one of your early paragraphs, and have you left no doubt that it is your thesis? (Caution: once again, you shouldn't confuse a fully developed, "elephantine" thesis statement with a straightforward, unqualified core thesis. Your reader needs to learn what your main idea is; the "although's" and "because's" are the business of the rest of your paper.)

5. Do all of my paragraphs help to build the reader's confidence in my thesis?

   The likelihood of a yes answer increases insofar as you have found a real point to make and outlined the steps needed to make that point credible. Even so, the answer after just one draft may be no. If you did have an idea to pursue, you may have spent much of that draft restating the idea instead of developing and defending it. And you may have digressed, or wandered from the point, in one or two paragraphs. Uproot the offending passages and try to make the whole paper move forward purposefully.

6. Does my first paragraph attract the reader's interest?

   There are several ways to attract attention, including statistics, quotes, anecdotes, and examples. Select an attention-getter that is appropriate for the reader(s).

7. Have I provided necessary information where it is needed?

   Ask whether you have supplied facts and explanations necessary for an understanding of your presentation. If you are analyzing a process, are you sure your reader grasps the fundamentals of that process? If you are interpreting a literary text, can you assume that your reader already knows the plot?

8. Does my last paragraph give enough sense of completion?

   One might include in the conclusion a summary of the main points made in the paper, a final statement linked to the attention-getter in the introduction, or implications of the research. Avoid introducing new information or opinions not discussed in the body of the paper. Try to leave the reader with something general in the last paragraph.

9. If I have quoted long passages, have I kept my own ideas from being submerged?

   A no answer is appropriate if you see that your quotations are mostly filler, fattening your paper to a required length and remaining largely unanalyzed.

   Editorial Revision

10. Are my voice and tone consistent and appropriate?

    Narrowly considered, voice has to do with pronouns. Do you call yourself I or, more distantly, we ? Do you address your reader familiarly as you , lending your paper an informal air? Do you reach for the formal-sounding one when delivering judgments, as in "One must reject such an outlandish suggestion"? These choices help to set the tone , or general quality or feeling, conveyed in your paper. Ask whether your draft has avoided an awkward mixture of effects and whether you have established a degree of intimacy or distance suitable to the occasion.

11. Are my paragraphs unified, emphatic, and fully developed?

12. Have I made clear and helpful transitions between paragraphs?

    First-draft prose tends to consist of isolated paragraphs that fill outline categories one by one. Drawing those paragraphs into logical relationship with signal words like however and furthermore is a simple but immensely helpful act of revision.

13. Are my sentences pointed and efficient?

    You can be quite sure that, after one draft, they will need to be made more pointed and efficient. Revise for distinctness of assertion, adequate subordination, matching of like elements, and conciseness.

14. Do my sentences show enough variety of structure?

    That would be a pleasant surprise; when you are struggling to pin down ideas, sentence structure usually gets neglected. Revise to break up monotonous patterns - especially a succession of plain, choppy sentences.

15. Is my diction free of cliches, jargon, euphemism, needless abstraction, and mixed metaphor?

16. Do all of my words mean what I think they mean?

    When in doubt, reach for the dictionary.

17. Are all of my words correctly spelled?

    If you keep a list of words you have previously misspelled, you will be alert for them in your draft. In addition, watch out for the most commonly misspelled words, and consult the dictionary whenever you feel unsure.

18. Have I kept to standard idiomatic written usage?

    Rough drafts often contain unidiomatic phrases - expressions that vary slightly but gratingly from the accepted form ( in regards to for in regard to , off of for off , and so on). To catch such phrases, read your draft aloud and try to notice where it departs from normal speech. And look carefully to see whether you have violated any rules of standard written English: subject-verb agreement, pronoun reference, placement of modifiers, and so forth.

19. Have I followed correct form for punctuation and other conventions?

    Watch especially for difficulties with commas and periods, and check to see that you have formed capitals, italics, abbreviations, and numbers in the customary way.

20. If I have included other people's words or ideas, have I cited them properly?

    This is partly an ethical matter, the avoidance of plagiarism. But once you have recognized the need to cite your sources, you still have to check whether your form of citation is consistent and usual.

21. Does my title indicate that I have a point to make?

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Oral reading and sub vocalization should be done early in the writing process. These strategies, from Madraso (1993), force the reader to read slowly, making it easier to spot mistakes.

Oral Reading

Oral reading involves reading aloud while proofreading. This may be approached in several ways: the writer may read aloud to him/herself, the writer may read into a tape recorder and then listen to the recording while rereading, or another person can read the paper while the writer listens. Oral reading reveals problems in sentence structure, spelling, mechanics, and content.

Subvocalization

When reading aloud is not feasible, such as when taking essay exams, subvocalization is an effective strategy for proofreading. Subvocalization involves reading to oneself without actually making any sounds. To subvocalize, the reader moves his/her lips while reading, or the reader uses his/her finger or pencil to point to each word and punctuation mark while reading.

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The SCOPE strategy targets students' self-proofreading skills in the content areas. SCOPE acts a mnemonic to remind students of those aspects of their writing that must be checked while proofing. It is especially helpful in situations when students cannot seek the help of others in proofing. For example, one important task to which SCOPE may be applied by students is essay exams; students should be encouraged to use the mnemonic as a reminder to check important aspects of their answers before turning in their tests.

• Spelling

• Capitalization

• Order of words

• Punctuation

• Express complete thoughts

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Paragraphs may be evaluated and improved using the following checklist (quoted from REFERENCE).

Topic Sentences

• What is the topic sentence of each paragraph, and is it stated or implied?
• Where in the paragraph does it fall?
• Should it come at some other point?
• Would any paragraph be improved by deleting or adding a topic sentence?
• What is the most general sentence in each paragraph?
• If the most general sentence is not the topic sentence, should it remain or be omitted?

• Which sentences, if any, do not relate in some way to the topic sentence?
• Is there any way to justify their inclusion?

• Is each paragraph organized in a way that is easy for readers to follow?
• By what means are sentences linked in each paragraph?
• Do any more links need to be added?
• Do any of the transitional expressions try to create links that do not really exist between ideas?

• How completely does each paragraph develop its topic sentence?
• What methods of development are used, and are they effective?
• What other methods might be used?
• Does the paragraph need more material?

• How long is each paragraph?
• Are paragraphs varied in length?
• Does any paragraph seem too long [e.g. an entire page] or too short [e.g. one sentence]?
• Is there anything that might be given strong emphasis by a one-sentence paragraph?

• By what means are paragraphs linked together?
• Do any more links need to be added?
• Do any of the transitional expressions try to create links that do not really exist between ideas?

• How does the introductory paragraph catch the interest of the readers?
• How exactly does it open - with a quotation? an anecdote? a question? a strong statement?
• How else might it open?

• How does the last paragraph draw the essay to a conclusion?
• What lasting impression will it leave with readers?
• How exactly does it close- with a question? a quotation? a vivid image? a warning or call to action?
• How else might this essay conclude?

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