Reading Comprehension

Background Information on Reading Comprehension

Purposes of Reading Comprehension Strategies

Advantages of Reading Comprehension Strategies

Specific Reading Comprehension Strategies

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BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON READING COMPREHENSION

Reading comprehension refers to the ability to understand information presented in written form. While this process usually entails understanding textbook assignments, reading comprehension skills also may affect one's interpretation of directions on exams, labs, and homework assignments and completion of job applications or questionnaires.

The following paragraphs consider several basic topics related to reading comprehension.

• Metacognitive Behaviors of Good and Poor Readers
• Reasons for Lack of Comprehension
• Troubleshooting

Students with good versus poor reading skills demonstrate distinct cognitive behaviors before, during, and after reading an assignment. The following chart from Cook (1989) summarizes these behaviors.

	GOOD OR MATURE READERS	POOR OR IMMATURE READERS
BEFORE READING	Activate prior knowledge Understand task and set purpose Choose appropriate strategies	Start reading without preparation Read without knowing why Read without considering how to approach the material
DURING READING	Focus attention Anticipate and predict Use fix-up strategies when lack of understanding occurs Use contextual analysis to understand new terms Use text structure to assist comprehension Organize and integrate new information Self-monitor comprehension by ... knowing comprehension is occurring knowing what is being understood	Are easily distracted Read to get done Do not know what to do when lack of understanding occurs Do not recognize important vocabulary Do not see any organization Add on, rather than integrate, new information Do not realize they do not understand
AFTER READING	Reflect on what was read Feel success is a result of effort Summarize major ideas Seek additional information from outside sources	Stop reading and thinking Feel success is a result of luck

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Reading comprehension fails for a number of reasons. Students, with the help of a facilitator if necessary, should attempt to identify the cause(s) of lack of comprehension and then identify appropriate reading strategies to compensate for the deficit(s).

Five reasons for lack of reading comprehension are listed below (the first four are from Twining, 1991).

• Failure to understand a word

• Failure to understand a sentence

• Failure to understand how sentences relate to one another

• Failure to understand how the information fits together in a meaningful way (organization)

• Lack of interest or concentration

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The following tips are intended to help students and facilitators identify reasons for lack of reading comprehension. Learners may find that the reasons for lack of understanding are situational, depending on the type of reading matter, the subject of the material, and one's mental or physical state. Not all failures in all contexts will be attributable to the same factor. For example, lack of understanding of a biology text may be due to vocabulary problems, while lack of comprehension of a history text may be attributed to organizational failures. Therefore, it is helpful for students to be familiar with a number of reading comprehension strategies in order to deal effectively with different situations.

• Read a variety of materials. Do not limit yourself to text books.

• Read a fairly long portion of the material. It would be difficult to assess reading comprehension based on one or two paragraphs. Try to read an entire section or chapter instead.

• Circle unknown or unfamiliar words as you read.

• After reading, recall as much of the information as possible. Then check the accuracy and completeness of your recollections. If the main ideas are presented in a particular order, see if you can recall that organization.

• Consider how interesting the subject matter is and how much you already know about the subject.

• Answer questions about the material after reading it. The questions may come from the book itself, from instructors or tutors, or may be made up by the student.

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PURPOSES OF READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES

Reading is one of the most important academic tasks faced by students. Strategies designed to improve reading comprehension may have any number of purposes.

• To enhance understanding of the content information presented in a text

• To improve understanding of the organization of information in a text

• To improve attention and concentration while reading

• To make reading a more active process

• To increase personal involvement in the reading material

• To promote critical thinking and evaluation of reading material

• To enhance registration and recall of text information in memory

Improved reading comprehension skills can positively impact many facets of student academic performance. Students who have effectively read and understood reading assignments are better prepared for class, leading to improved class participation and more accurate and complete notes. Performance on exams and quizzes may be greatly improved as students become more proficient and effective readers. Student interest and motivation in a subject is often fostered when one understands the reading assignments. In addition, as students gain proficiency in reading, self-esteem improves.

SPECIFIC READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES

As indicated previously, failures in reading comprehension are usually attributable to one or more factors: lack of interest, lack of concentration, failure to understand a word, a sentence, or relationships among sentences, or failure to understand how information fits together. Most of the strategies discussed here are arranged according to these factors.

Some of the reading strategies may be used by students themselves, while others require intervention by a facilitator either initially to introduce the strategy or constantly to reinforce key ideas. Most of the strategies are designed for use by students, but a few are intended to be used by instructors only.

• Miscellaneous Strategies
  • General Fix-up Strategies
  • Increasing Reading Rate
  • Challenging Reading Material
  • Books on Tape
  • Reading Strategies for ESL/EFL Students
  • Reading Preparation for Standardized Tests
  • Text Book Note taking
  • Group Activity for Content Reading
  • Study Groups for Reading
  • Graphic Organizers for Merging Reading and Cooperative Strategies
  • Discussion Continuum
  • Building Active Readers through Debate
  • Nontext Reading Comprehension
  • Reading Foreign Language Texts
  • Reading Science Material
  • Staying Alert while Reading
  • Summary Writing

• Strategies Related to Interest and Concentration
  • Creating Interest
  • Improving Concentration
  • Improving Motivation

• Strategies Related to Vocabulary
  • General Approach to Unfamiliar Vocabulary Words
  • Predictions Based on Context
  • Word Elements: Affixes and Roots
  • Antonyms, Synonyms, and Related Approaches
  • LINCS Strategy
  • DISSECT Strategy
  • CSSD Strategy
  • Vocab Game
  • Graphic Organizers and Groups
  • Patterned Language Approach
  • Teaching Vocabulary - Do's and Don'ts

• Strategies Related to Organization
  • Text Book Organization
  • Text Skimming
  • Creative Mapping for Content Reading
  • Mediated Instruction of Text (MIT) for Content Reading
  • SQ3R Strategy
  • PQ4R Strategy
  • RAP Strategy
  • SNIPS Strategy
  • PARTS: A Text Perusal Strategy
  • REAP Strategy
  • MultiPass Strategy
  • PRSR Strategy
  • PROR Strategy
  • Text Book Reading Guides
  • Exercises in Meaningful Organization
  • KWL Strategy
  • Directed Reading Activity (DRA)
  • Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DRTA)
  • Story Star / Story Map Frameworks
  • Gleaning

When failures in reading comprehension occur, several general options are available to the reader. If these strategies are not effective, the reader is advised to consult the more specific strategies outlined in the rest of this page.

If reading comprehension fails . . .

• ignore that section of text and read on.

• suspend judgment and look ahead for clarification.

• form a tentative hypothesis and read on to see if you are correct.

• reread the current sentence.

• reread the previous context.

• go to an expert source.

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Reading rate is a measure of how quickly one can read. It is calculated by dividing the number of words read by the number of minutes it takes to read the words. Reading rate most commonly is expressed in units of words per minute (WPM).

It takes conscious effort to improve reading rate fluency. One must become cognizant of the habits that reduce the rate of reading and then take steps to eliminate those habits. Lip reading, sub vocalization, and regression are three such habits. Lip reading, a common habit, involves moving one's lips while reading without making any noise. Sub vocalization occurs when one partially activates one's vocal cords. Lack of concentration results in regression, or forgetting previously read information.

Be cautioned that reading quickly is not effective if one does not understand or remember what one has read. Therefore, it is important to develop flexibility in one's reading skills. Adjust reading rates according to the type of material being read and the level of difficulty. Obviously, one should read a technical description of genetics more slowly than a magazine article on U.S.-Soviet relations. In addition, don't skip over illustrations and tables for the sake of saving time. Critical information is often tucked away in these ancillary formats.

Another cautionary note is related to the practice of sub vocalization. While it is true that this habit reduces reading rate, it may be a necessary strategy for auditory learners to use while reading.

Measuring Reading Rate

To measure one's reading rate, locate appropriate reading materials and select a section of text. Mark the beginning of the selection. Read for a certain length of time (use a timer or watch) or for a certain amount of text. Mark the end of the selection, and note the total number of minutes spent reading.

Document the level of comprehension by recalling main ideas from the selection. If one reads for three minutes, one should remember three main points. If one reads for five minutes, one should remember five main ideas. Jot down these main points.

Count the number of words between the two marks, and divide that number by the number of minutes spent reading. This is the rate of reading, expressed in words per minute (WPM).

Increasing Reading Rate

Set a target reading rate at a level slightly higher than the initial reading rate. Use reading materials that are easy and interesting. Practice at least 15 minutes each day at the "pushed" rate. Increase the target rate by small increments as reading improves. Progress may be charted on a daily grid that plots rate (WPM) and time on the axes. Document progress for at least two weeks. [A sample reading rate progress grid will be available in August 1996.]

Move your eyes faster over the text. Instead of taking in three words per fixation, take in six words. Follow the lines with your finger, pen, pencil, or a 3 x 5 index card as you read.

Reduce regressions by raising awareness of them and by improving concentration. To raise awareness, use a 3 x 5 index card to cover words and lines as they are read. When you regress, you will have to move the card to remember what you have read. You will soon notice how often you must stop and move the card. To improve concentration, personalize the subject and create questions related to the material before reading the assignment. For more specific strategies, see the Creating Interest, Improving Concentration, and Improving Motivation sections of this page.

The key to increasing reading rate is practice. Realize that reading speed will not increase over night, but that the process will take some time. Don't give up.

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Reading assignments may be challenging if the information is highly specialized or technical, or if the material is beyond the student's level of preparation. In these situations it is common for students to lose interest and motivation. The following tips may help students get through difficult reading assignments.

• Repetition.
  • Read over the assignment once. Switch to another task for a period of time or sleep on it. Re-read the material later or on the following day. Review the assignment periodically.

• Remediation.
  • Consult supplemental resources for learning fundamental information needed to understand the reading assignment. Possibilities include introductory textbooks, student workbooks or study guides to textbooks, lab manuals, and survey books.

• Consult with Professionals.
  • Additional help in understanding difficult readings may be obtained from the instructor during office hours, from graduate assistants, and from professional tutors. Peer tutors or upperclass majors may also provide valuable assistance.

• Essential Words.
  • Focus on key words in the text. Emphasize verbs and nouns only; ignore or cross out unnecessary adjectives and adverbs. Look for terms in bold print or italics.

• Review and Summarize.
  • Review after reading each paragraph of text. Identify the main idea of each paragraph. Be sure to understand each paragraph before moving on to the next. Review at the end of each section as well as at the end of the chapter. Develop your own summary of the chapter and compare it to the summary presented in the book.

• Make Reading More Active.
  • Comprehension may be improved if one uses senses other than vision while reading. Stimulate the auditory sense by reading aloud or listening to tape recordings of the text (see the Books on Tape section of this page). Take notes during or after reading difficult material (see the Text Book Note taking section of this page).

• Make Reading Interactive.
  • Work with another student. Read to each other, and take turns summarizing sections or chapters of text. "Teach" each other the more difficult concepts, making liberal use of visual aids. Relate the material to personal experiences.

• Review Questions.
  • Evaluate your understanding of the material by answering the review questions at the end of the chapter or in student study guides and workbooks. If questions are not available, make up your own by converting the section headings into questions.

• Words and Definitions.
  • Look up the definitions of all unfamiliar words, even if they are not in bold print or italics. Compile a written list of unfamiliar words (and definitions) that appear repeatedly, or record the words and definitions on audio tapes and listen to them for review. Use a dictionary to look up non-technical words, and consult the glossary in the book for technical word definitions. Place a colored paper clip on the glossary pages for quick access. Additional vocabulary strategies are discussed elsewhere in this page.

• Other Strategies.
  • Other strategies outlined in this page may be helpful when confronted with difficult reading assignments.

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Reading comprehension may be improved by involving senses other than vision. One way of making reading more active is to listen to the material as you read it. Besides reading aloud, listening to tape recordings of texts is an effective way of improving reading comprehension. It is particularly useful for students who are auditory learners (see the page on Modality Strength for definitions and surveys).

Tape recordings of books may be homemade or professionally produced. Class mates, friends, or family members can record tapes for you if you don't wish to do so yourself. Professional taping services provide audio cassettes and/or tape players for a fee. An example is Recording for the Blind, which supplies educational and professional books on tape for all subject areas from fourth grade through postgraduate levels. This particular service, however, is available only to persons with visual impairments, learning disabilities, or other physical disabilities that inhibit reading.

When producing your own tapes, keep these things in mind. Speak clearly and audibly, at an appropriate speed. Do read section headings, tables of information, and captions of illustrations. You should also record the end of chapter summaries, lists of key terms, and review questions.

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Reading comprehension may be especially difficult for students whose primary language is not English. The task of reading is often more time consuming for ESL (English as a Second Language) or EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students. The following strategies are intended for use by foreign students to help with reading comprehension.

English-Foreign Language Dictionaries

Foreign students who have trouble with English vocabulary may be able to get by with simply using dictionaries for translating unfamiliar words. One problem with this strategy is that technical words in specific content areas may not be listed in traditional dictionaries. In addition, using translation dictionaries may be a time-consuming process. To this end, if words are used repeatedly, it may be helpful to compile a list of the English words and their translations.

Context Clues

Context clues refer to words located elsewhere in a sentence or paragraph that help one to decipher unknown vocabulary words. Complete details on context clues are found elsewhere in this page.

Other Vocabulary-Related Strategies

Additional strategies related to vocabulary and reading comprehension are discussed elsewhere in this page.

Paired Storytelling Strategy

The paired storytelling strategy (Lie, 1993) was developed as an alternative to strategies that rely solely on translating words and phrases. It encourages foreign students in high school and college to use prior knowledge to improve comprehension of reading assignments. Both reading and writing skills are integrated with group activities in the paired storytelling strategy.

"This approach includes five characteristics important in teaching students to read in a foreign language: (a) that students' cultural background plays an important role in reading comprehension; (b) that L2 (second language) readers should use the same sorts of skills as effective L1 (first language) readers do; (c) that reading should be integrated with writing; (d) that students should be engaged in nonthreatening cooperative contexts; and (e) that they should have the opportunity to process information effectively and communicate in the target language (TL)" (Lie, 1993, p. 656).

The paired storytelling strategy has several advantages. First, it gives ESL students the opportunity to converse in the target language in an informal setting on a one-on-one basis. Because it is a group endeavor, paired storytelling encourages cooperation, motivation, and confidence. Self-esteem often is impacted positively. Second, verbal use of the target language improves the students' skills in reading and writing the language. A third advantage of the strategy is the contextualized practice with vocabulary that it provides. New words are used in meaningful ways by both partners in each pair.

The paired storytelling strategy requires guidance by a facilitator. Directions for using the paired storytelling strategy are outlined below.

1. Divide Students.
   • Break the class into pairs of students.

2. Introduce Topics.
   • Introduce the topic of the reading assignment and write it on the board or overhead projector.

3. Brainstorm.
   • Help the students brainstorm about the topic. What previous knowledge do they have about the topic? How does it relate to personal experiences?

   • The facilitator should emphasize that there are no "right" answers or comments in this initial stage. The point is to activate the students' background and to encourage them to anticipate what they might find in the assignment.

   • For the facilitator, the brainstorming stage is important for evaluating whether or not the students' knowledge base is adequate for the reading assignment. If necessary, the facilitator may provide additional background information relevant to the reading.

4. Distribute Assignment.
   • Divide the reading assignment into two parts. Give a copy of the first section to one student in each group, and a copy of the second section to the other student in each pair.

5. Read and Annotate.
   • As each student reads his/her section, he/she should write down the main ideas in the order in which they appear in the text. It may be helpful to limit the number of main points to be recorded for each of the two sections of text.

6. Exchange Lists.
   • The students in each pair then exchange their lists of key ideas with their partners. The students are given a few minutes to evaluate his/her partner's list with respect to the section he/she read and annotated. At this stage, if a student does not understand an item on his/her partner's list, the facilitator or partner may define it or use it in a sentence in the target language.

7. Write a Story.
   • Using his/her partner's list as well as recollections of the section he/she read, each student composes his/her own version of the missing section. The student who read the first section predicts what happens in the end, and the student who read the second section predicts what happened in the beginning.

8. Read Stories.
   • The partners then read their versions of the missing sections to each other. The facilitator also may seek volunteers to read their versions to the entire class. During this stage, it is important to forbid teasing or deriding by the other students.

9. Comparison.
   • The missing sections are then distributed to the students, who read it and compare it to their own versions.

10. Discussion.
    • The complete story is then discussed within each pair and/or by the entire class. The former situation is better if students are wary of speaking in front of others. The facilitator may move among the pairs to monitor the discussion.

11. Evaluation.
    • The facilitator may choose to quiz students on the reading assignment. If so, the evaluations should be completed individually.

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An important component of most standardized tests like ACT and SAT is reading comprehension. This section outlines strategies to help one prepare for the reading comprehension sections of standardized tests. Because respectable standardized test scores are necessary for admission into undergraduate, graduate, and professional programs, it is important to perform well on the reading comprehension portions of these tests.

Reading comprehension tests usually contain excerpts of text a few hundred words in length. Topics of the text vary widely from popular culture to natural science to current politics. Each passage is followed by several questions based on the text. The number of questions is proportional to the length of the passages.

Three strategies for improving performance on reading comprehension tests are knowing typical questions on reading comprehension, reading the passage before the questions, and practicing reading skills (REFERENCE). Other strategies such as underlining and annotating are discussed.

For more strategies, see the Reading Comprehension Tests section of the Test Taking page.

Typical Reading Comprehension Questions

Students should become familiar with the main categories of reading comprehension questions asked on standardized tests. Having these question types in mind will help to focus one's attention while reading the passages.

Reading comprehension questions usually take one of three forms: questions based on the entire passage, questions based on sections of the passage, and questions based on particular words or sentences. Each of these is discussed and exemplified below (REFERENCE).

• Questions Based on the Entire Passage

  Questions based on the entire reading usually target the main point of the text, author intentions, main ideas, and content. Ten types of questions based on the entire passage are given below along with sample wordings from SAT questions.

• Questions Based on Sections of the Passage

  In order to answer questions on specific sections of the passage, one must be able to identify and understand the main points in each paragraph. Look for cue words like advantages, disadvantages, similarities, differences, in contrast with, in comparison to, most importantly, primarily, and on the other hand.

  Questions based on portions of the text usually deal with inferences, applications, and implications of the information. Six types of questions based on sections of the passage along with sample wordings from SAT questions are given in the following table.

• Questions Based on Words, Phrases or Sentences

  Specific details and pieces of information may be the subject of test questions. The content itself is not usually the subject of questions. Rather, the reasons for using the information or the meanings of the information are usually the subject of questions.

  Two types of questions based on words, phrases, or sentences are listed in the following table along with sample wordings from SAT questions.

Read Passages Before Questions

Some authors (e.g. Lunenfeld and Lunenfeld, 1981) contend that one should look over the questions before reading the passage, arguing that it saves time and focuses one's attention on certain information. But others argue that for standardized tests this practice is probably a waste of time. Because standardized tests are timed, it is important to move through the passages and questions efficiently.

If one is familiar with the common types of questions asked on standardized tests, as described on the previous tables, one will already know what to expect. "Reading the passage first forces you to get involved with the passage and with the intent of its author. By getting involved you will, in fact, anticipate many if not all of the questions that follow the passage" (REFERENCE, p. 40). If one reads the questions first, one will be tempted to move too quickly through the passage looking for the answers. As a result, the intentions and tone of the author will be lost. It is also likely that the general theme of the entire passage will be misunderstood.

Practice Reading Skills

One of the best ways to prepare for reading comprehension tests is to practice. It is relatively easy to find reading materials appropriate for standardized test preparation. One might also work with a buddy, finding passages and making up questions for each other.

Locate passages of text about three to six paragraphs in length from the following sources: newspaper stories, newspaper editorials, newspaper political columns, essays and columns in news magazines like Time or Newsweek, science fact magazines, encyclopedia articles, nonfiction books, and general interest magazines like Reader's Digest.

Read a passage, keeping in mind the common types of standardized test questions discussed previously. After completing the reading, make up questions based on the entire passage, on sections of the passage, and on specific words or sentences. Then answer your own questions.

An example of practicing reading comprehension is outlined below. Questions and answers follow the sample passage of text (REFERENCE).

• Sample Passage

  "We should also know that 'greed' has little to do with the environmental crisis. The two main causes are population pressures, especially the pressures of large metropolitan populations, and the desire - a highly commendable one - to bring a decent living at the lowest possible cost to the largest possible number of people."

  "The environmental crisis is the result of success - success in cutting down the mortality of infants (which has given us the population explosion), success in raising farm output sufficiently to prevent mass famine (which has given us contamination by pesticides and chemical fertilizers), success in getting the people out of the tenements of the 19th-century cities and into the greenery and privacy of the single-family home in the suburbs (which has given us urban sprawl and traffic jams). The environmental crisis, in other words, is largely the result of doing too much of the right sort of thing."

  "To overcome the problems that success always creates, one must build on it. But where to start? Cleaning up the environment requires determined, sustained effort with clear targets and deadlines. It requires, above all, concentration of effort. Up to now we have tried to do it in the headlines - when what we ought to do first is draw up a list of priorities."

• Sample Questions
  1. This passage assumes the desirability of

     (a) using atomic energy to conserve fuel.
     (b) living in comfortable family lifestyles.
     (c) settling disputes peacefully.
     (d) combating cancer and heart disease with energetic research.
     (e) having greater government involvement in people's daily lives.

  2. According to this passage, one early step in any effort to improve the environment would be to

     (a) return to the exclusive use of natural fertilizers.
     (b) put a high tax on profiteering industries.
     (c) ban the use of automobiles in the cities.
     (d) study successful efforts in other countries.
     (e) set up a time table for corrective actions.

  3. The passage indicates that the conditions that led to overcrowded roads also brought about

     (a) more attractive living conditions for many people.
     (b) a healthier younger generation.
     (c) greater occupational opportunities.
     (d) the population explosion.
     (e) greater concentration of population pressures.

  4. It could be logically assumed that the author of this passage would support legislation to

     (a) ban the use of all pesticides.
     (b) prevent the use of autos in cities.
     (c) build additional power plants.
     (d) organize an agency to oversee efforts to deal with environmental problems.
     (e) restrict press coverage of protests.

• Answers to Sample Questions
  1. Choice (b) is correct because the author discusses people leaving urban tenements to live in more attractive suburban homes. The other choices are not mentioned in the passage.

  2. Choice (e) is correct because the author argues for "clear targets and deadlines." The other choices are not mentioned in the passage.

  3. Choice (a) is correct because life in the suburbs lead to traffic problems. The other choices are not mentioned in relation to overcrowded roads.

  4. Choice (d) is correct because the author argues for directed and concentrated efforts to deal with environmental problems. The first choice is not correct because the author only indicates that pollution from pesticides is an outgrowth of modern agricultural practices. Choices (b) and (c) are not justified by the content of the passage. The author would probably welcome more press coverage as long as this is not the only form of action against environmental problems, so the last choice is not correct.

Additional strategies for improving reading comprehension on standardized tests include underlining key words and numbering the main ideas or key points as one reads a passage. One also may choose to write very brief annotations in the margins while reading. The key to these strategies is to keep it brief so valuable time is not wasted.

One should work quickly while completing reading comprehension questions. The easier passages are usually given first, so don't skip them. Don't skip questions after reading a passage since this wastes time.

Don't add one's own interpretations and facts to the passage in order to answer questions. The answers should be based on the information presented in the text only, even if one disagrees with the material.

Check each answer after selecting it. Are all parts of the question answered? Is the answer contained in the text?

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Although note taking for text books is discussed at length in the Note taking page, some of the main ideas are summarized here. Writing summaries from text book material is covered elsewhere in this page.

There are at least four reasons for taking notes on text book material. It reinforces learning of the information. It encourages selection of the main ideas and details in order to visualize the overall organization of the text. It creates a shortened version of the text with all the essential information recorded for future exam review. It helps to improve concentration.

Five of the most important tips for textbook note taking are listed below.

• Finish reading before taking notes.
  • Students should not read the entire chapter, but should read through long paragraphs or headed sections of text before recording notes. If one waits until the end to write notes, he/she may forget some of the important ideas and supporting details. But by reading small sections at a time, one has enough information from which to choose the most important ideas, without losing track of the flow of ideas. The most important concepts are reinforced before the reader moves on to the next section, making learning a cumulative process.

• Be very selective about what is recorded.
  • It takes practice to learn how to select the most important ideas in a reading, but remember that the goal of note taking is to produce a shortened version of the text. Be selective so that only the basic concepts are recorded. In order to decide what information should be noted, skim or preview the text first or see what the instructor has emphasized in the lecture.

• Use your own words.
  • Because the chances of comprehending and remembering information are greatly improved when the work is one's own, take the extra time to paraphrase important material. The time spent trying to understand a passage and record the main ideas in one's own words is the single most important investment of time a reader can make.

• Work quickly and efficiently.
  • Note taking does not have to be painful or time consuming. Read, think, write, and move on. The rewards will come at test time.

• Use organizational strategies.
  • Notes should be organized according to one of the strategies discussed in the Note taking page or in the Organization page. The Cornell method is a good choice because it allows one to organize and to recall actively and quickly the main points of the text.

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An example of cooperative learning with the goal of reading new content area material is outlined by Mickel (1993). This strategy is designed to be implemented by a course instructor, although it may be used with the guidance of tutors or it may be modified for use by students. Depending on the length of the assigned readings, this activity could take one to several days to complete. It may be helpful to introduce the strategy section by section to allow for maximum comprehension of expectations.

The eleven-step reading comprehension activity is described below.

1. Divide the class into groups of four students.
   • If possible, each group should include one above-average student, one below-average student, and two average students.
   • Assign each student an arbitrary number (1 through 4), regardless of ability.

2. Designate the pages in the text book to be used in the cooperative learning activity.

3. Assign vocabulary tasks.
   • Assign student #1 of each group the task of introducing the new vocabulary words in the reading to other members of his or her group.
   • Student #1 lists each new term and solicits definitions from other members of his/her group. If none are able to define the word correctly, that word is marked.

4. Assign reading tasks.
   • Assign student #2 of each group the task of reading the new material aloud to his/her group while the other members follow along.
   • Any student is free to emphasize important information during this process.

5. Assign questioning tasks.
   • Assign student #3 of each group the task of asking the group questions based on the oral reading.
   • Student #3 should keep track of his/her group's answers.
   • If desired, the instructor may develop these questions ahead of time to insure that students cover the main points of the reading.

6. Assign follow-up tasks.
   • Assign student #4 of each group the task of directing a follow-up activity that reinforces the general and specific concepts of the reading.
   • Instructor guidance may be needed here as well.

7. Recombine the groups and conduct a review.
   • Reassemble the class into one large group in order to review the results of each subgroup.
   • This allow the students to assimilate their new knowledge.
   • Students #1 present the words that the their groups knew and did not know.
   • Students #3 present their groups' answers to the review questions.
   • Students #4 present their groups' follow-up results.

8. The instructor evaluates reading comprehension.
   • The instructor may use an evaluative activity to assess the student's mastery of the new material.
   • The instructor should also evaluate each individual's participation within his/her group.

9. Students evaluate the group activity.
   • Each student evaluates the cooperative learning activity.
   • The following form allows the student to assess his/her own performance as well as those of the other group members.
   • Ratings of 1 or 5 require explanations on the back of the form.
   • All forms are confidential and only seen by the instructor.
   • Periodic and unannounced use of this form of evaluation keeps students "on their toes."

   ________________________________________

   GROUP EVALUATION

   • Your Name:

   • Date of Presentation:

   • Circle your ratings for yourself and for each member of your group.

   • Rate group members according to their contribution in preparation for the presentation and fulfillment of the assigned responsibility in the cooperative learning group.

   • Ratings of 1 or 5 must be described on the back of the form.

   5	4	3	2	1
   Very good	Good	Satisfactory	Unsatisfactory	Poor

   NAME

   RATING

   _________________________	5	4	3	2	1
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10. The instructor observes and evaluates the entire group.
    • The performance of the entire group is evaluated by the instructor as he/she moves among the groups as they work.
    • All group members receive the same grade based on their ability to work together efficiently.

11. The instructor evaluates reading comprehension using traditional tests.
    • Traditional tests provide a fourth means of evaluating the cooperative learning activity.
    • The exam may be composed of the main points brought out by the groups.

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As discussed in the Group and Cooperative Learning page, student study groups are an effective strategy for many academic tasks, including exam preparation and note taking. Study groups may also be used in a variety of ways for reading assignments. Four examples are discussed here.

• One approach is to form a study group for completing long or complex reading assignments. Each member of the study group is assigned a section of the text. He/she carefully reads that section and records the most important ideas and supporting details in a flowchart, outline, creative map, or another organizational tool. Then the other sections of text are quickly skimmed. The group meets to exchange notes on each section and to analyze the entire reading. They review the author's purpose, the purpose of the text, the main ideas, and supporting details to tie the sections together. They consider how the text relates to lecture material, to other reading assignments, and to course objectives.

• In another scenario, study group members meet to analyze the assignment as a group. Each student has carefully read the entire text ahead of time. The group determines the author's purpose and motivation for writing the text. They identify the main points and supporting details. They discuss the visual aids used by the author. Individuals share past experiences and prior knowledge related to the subject. Information is organized in table, graphic, outline, or list form, and copies are run for all group members.

• A third study group approach involves students reading the assignment on their own and preparing review questions based on the main points and supporting details of the text. Members meet to exchange and answer questions. The review questions may be used to quiz the other members, or they may be answered by the team. Answers are xeroxed and distributed to all contributing group members.

• The fourth approach involves working with a study buddy. After reading the entire assignment, one student explains the information to his/her partner. The buddy ensures that all main points have been covered and that the descriptions are accurate. Or, the partners can take turns describing one section of text at a time.

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Graphic organizers use visual images to organize information. Avery and Avery (1994) present an approach for improving reading comprehension by using graphic organizers in cooperative learning activities. Though intended for use by high school literature students, the approach may be modified for readings at other levels and for other subjects.

Cooperative learning for reading tasks is viewed as beneficial by the authors for several reasons.

• "Through positive peer pressure, group members motivate each other to improve reading skills."

• "Cooperative learning promotes interest in reading and understanding of literature as group members defend interpretations and synthesize ideas to arrive at common themes."

• "Cooperative learning strategies can be used throughout the learning task: to focus prereading activities, to increase processing while reading, and to add punch to closing activities" (Avery and Avery, 1994, p. 689).