Group and Cooperative Learning

Background Information on Group & Cooperative Learning

Purposes of Group & Cooperative Learning Strategies

Advantages of Group & Cooperative Learning Strategies

Specific Group & Cooperative Learning Strategies

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Background Information on Group and Cooperative Learning

Group and cooperative learning offer alternatives to learning by the individual student. With these strategies, several students work together to complete a task. Such collaborative learning may be administered by the course instructor or may be instigated by a group of students on their own. The latter is often referred to as "study groups."

Small groups work best for collaborative learning. The optimum group size is three students, but effective groups may have two to five members. Larger groups work better as a forum for information exchange among smaller sub-groups.

"Each group operates as a team and the teammates are responsible for their own learning as well as that of their teammates. ... Everyone has a task and is actively involved. ... students must feel that they need each other in order to carry out the group's task" (Mickel, 1993, p. 659).

In order to be effective, groups must follow general operating procedures and rules of behavior. In addition, group members should be aware of their roles in cooperative sessions. Worksheets may be used to formalize these considerations.

For more background information on forming effective study groups, select the appropriate links below.

• General Operating Procedures
• Rules of Behavior
• Group Member Roles
• Study Group Worksheets
• Words of Caution
• Types of Groups

General Operating Procedures

All too often, study groups fail because members do not discuss the goals of the group or the manner in which those goals will be achieved. By following the general operating procedures explained below, students can head off disasters and make cooperative learning more effective and efficient. The rules given below, from Gomon and Guenzel (1987), may be altered or supplemented by members of the study group to fit their particular needs.

• Agree on the desired outcomes or goals of the group.
• Agree on group activities and roles to achieve outcomes.
• Agree on specific time allocations for the activities of each session.
• Operate under the control of the Time-keeper.
• Agree on next-meeting responsibilities and preparations.
• Evaluate group outcomes and meeting process.

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Rules of Behavior

Group members should agree on some rules of behavior for study sessions. The rules given below, from Gomon and Guenzel (1987), may be altered or supplemented by members of the study group to fit their particular needs.

• Group members will agree to adopt the General Operating Procedures set out by the group.
• Group members will make a personal commitment to contribute to the group by...
• bringing materials relevant to the task.
• previewing topics to be covered by the group.
• meeting due dates for activities.
• notifying members of potential agenda changes prior to sessions.
• In evaluating group outcomes and process, members will agree to use objective critique behaviors rather than personal attacks.

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Group Member Roles

Members of effective study groups have specific roles. Each group member may assume several roles at a given session; in fact, for smaller groups it will be necessary for each member to have more than one duty. Gomon and Guenzel's (1987) descriptions of seven group member roles are given below. A group activity that reinforces the differences between group member roles, Mirroring, is discussed elsewhere in this page.

• Chair or Leader
• This person is the agenda-setting facilitator.
• In other words, the chair or leader sets the agenda of the session, with input from the rest of the group.
• Time Keeper
• This person is the agenda facilitator.
• The time keeper keeps track of the amount of time spent on each activity in the session and makes sure pre-arranged time allocations in the agenda are followed.
• Room Scheduler
• This person arranges the date, time and place of the study session with school administrators, if necessary.
• The room scheduler may also be responsible for contacting study group members to remind them about sessions.
• Resource Arranger
• This person arranges for supplies and resources for the session.
• Resources may include reference books from the library, peer tutors, or overhead projectors.
• Group Process Evaluator
• This person evaluates the effectiveness and efficiency of the session.
• Producer or Participant
• This person takes part in the scheduled activities of the session.
• In most cases, all members of the study group are participants.
• Resource Person
• This person is not necessarily a constant member of the group.
• The resource person is present when needed to provide additional resources to the group members.
• The resource person may be a faculty member, a tutor, or another knowledgeable person.

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Study Group Worksheets

Worksheets are useful for helping students implement effective and efficient study groups. They provide the study group with a common sense of direction and purpose, and therefore should be completed for each group meeting or session. Worksheets combine the information described in the previous sections of this stack: operating procedures, rules of behavior, and roles. Specific activities and time limits are outlined on the worksheet.

A blank sample worksheet is shown below. It delineates the agenda of a future meeting and the amount of time to be spent on various activities in the next session. Two examples of completed worksheets for exam preparation and homework completion study groups are then given. All worksheets are from Gomon and Guenzel (1987).

Any of the worksheets can be tailored to meet the specific needs of the study group. It is a good idea to make xerox copies of worksheets to distribute to all members of the study group.

GROUP AGENDA WORKSHEET

• Directions
• Agree on role assignments.
• State special rules.
• Follow procedures.
• Operate under the control of the time-keeper.
• Group Members and Role Assignments

NAME	ROLE
.	.
.	.
.	.
.	.
.	.

• Meeting Time, Place and Date
  __________________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________________
• Rules
  __________________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________________
  __________________________________________________________
• Procedures

PROCEDURES	SPECIFIC OUTCOMES AND ACTIVITIES
Agree on specific outcomes (2-5 minutes)	* * * * *
Agree on specific activities and time allocations for each (2-5 minutes)	* __________________ (___ min.) * __________________ (___ min.) * __________________ (___ min.) * __________________ (___ min.) * __________________ (___ min.) Total = ___ minutes
Complete specified activities (Total = ___ minutes)	Comments: * * * * *
Agree on next-meeting responsibilities and preparations (2-5 minutes)	* * * * *
Evaluate group outcomes and process (2-5 minutes)	* * * * *

LONG-TERM EXAM PREPARATION
Study Group Worksheet
Time: 60 minutes

• Directions
• Agree on role assignments.
• State special rules.
• Follow procedures.
• Operate under the control of the time-keeper.
• Group Members and Role Assignments

NAME	ROLE
Michael	Time keeper, participant, evaluator
Heather	Chair, participant, evaluator
John	Room scheduler, resource arranger, participant, evaluator

• Meeting Time, Place and Date
• 9:30 - 10:30, Room 330, 11/6/95

• Rules
• Members agree to contribute and to follow procedures.
• Procedures

PROCEDURES	SPECIFIC OUTCOMES AND ACTIVITIES
Agree on specific outcomes (3 minutes)	* Answers to questions from last meeting * Sets of lecture notes from last 3 classes * Set of unanswered questions
Agree on specific activities and time allocations for each (3 minutes)	* Report answers to questions (10 min.) * Compare lecture notes by paraphrasing and identifying critical topics (12 min. for each lecture) * List new questions and assign them to group members (2 min.) Total = 48 minutes
Complete specified activities (Total = 48 minutes)	Comments: *May need additional work on first lecture *Ask instructor about two definitions
Agree on next-meeting responsibilities and preparations (3 minutes)	* John - report answers to questions * All - bring definitions for Chs. 7 and 8 * All - work on first lecture
Evaluate group outcomes and process (3 minutes)	* Great meeting * Finished on time * Little gossip * Excellent summary of answers to questions

HOMEWORK COMPLETION
Study Group Worksheet
Time: 60 minutes

• Directions
• Agree on role assignments.
• State special rules.
• Follow procedures.
• Operate under the control of the time-keeper.
• Group Members and Role Assignments

NAME	ROLE
Dave	Chair, participant, evaluator
Cassie	Room scheduler, resource arranger, participant, evaluator
Jamaal	Time keeper, participant, evaluator

• Meeting Time, Place and Date
• 4:00 - 5:00, Room 137, 4/28/96
• Rules
• Members agree to contribute and to follow procedures.
• Procedures

PROCEDURES	SPECIFIC OUTCOMES AND ACTIVITIES
Agree on specific outcomes (3 minutes)	* Solutions for 3 "easy" homework problems * Solutions for 2 "hard" homework problems
Agree on specific activities and time allocations for each (3 minutes)	* Each member "talks" solution to an "easy" problem with others' input (4 min. each) * Group works through "hard" problems using model problem-solving method and resource person (17 min. each) Total = 46 minutes
Complete specified activities (Total = 46 minutes)	Comments: * Question about order of operations
Agree on next-meeting responsibilities and preparations (3 minutes)	* All - bring 2 problems for practice test * Jamaal - contact prof about solution to unsolved "hard" problem * All - see tutor
Evaluate group outcomes and process (3 minutes)	* Maintained time schedule * One "hard" problem unsolved

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Words of Caution

Collaborative learning can be more successful if the following words of caution are considered. Some of these suggestions apply to study groups arranged by students themselves, while others are more pertinent to instructors using cooperative activities.

• For Students
• Choose members of your study group carefully.
• Be sure that your study group mutually decides on a way to check that all members contribute fairly and equally to the group.
• At your first meeting, decide on penalties for not contributing fairly.
• Stay on track at your study group sessions. The meetings are not appropriate times for chit-chat, gossip, or other nonproductive activities.
• Remember that study groups are not substitutes for learning all the required material yourself. In other words, the purpose is not only the split the work load but to make sure you understand all of the material.
• For Instructors
• Instructions and expectations for assignments should be clear.
• Group activities should be related to course objectives.
• Measure success by the amount of learning rather than by completion of the task.
• Take responsibility for forming groups.
• Help build group cohesion by asking students to share personal information or experiences.
• Use class time for group activities; they are easier to monitor than out-of-class group activities.
• Provide students with the background information or resources necessary for completing the group activity.

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Types of Groups

Study groups are often classified according to the primary goal of the group. At least eight types of groups can be defined based on goals: long-term exam preparation, homework completion, synthesis and application, special project completion, problem solving, note taking, learning strategies, and content reading. Each group type is described below, and the minimal required resources needed and more specific activities commonly associated with each group are indicated (some of the information is from Gomon and Guenzel, 1987). Some group types are discussed in more detail in the Study Groups portion of this page.

• Long-term Exam Preparation Groups
• Goal
• Prepare for examinations
• Resources Needed
• Complete sets of lecture notes
• Summaries from assigned readings
• Handouts and other relevant course materials
• Activities
• Identification of critical topics and their definitions or explanations
• Integration of lecture notes and readings
• Write sets of predicted exam questions
• An example of an exam-preparation group worksheet is given in the Study Group Worksheets section of this page.
• Homework Completion Groups
• Goal
• Complete homework assignments
• Resources Needed
• Assigned sets of homework problems
• Text books or lab books
• Calculator, graph paper, colored pencils, or other necessary supplies
• Activities
• Solve problems as a group
• Solve problems individually and then discuss results
• Teach solutions to other members of the group
• Write sets of predicted exam questions
• An example of a homework-completion group worksheet is given in the Study Group Worksheets section of this page.
• Synthesis and Application Groups
• Goal
• Integrate course information and/or apply course information to a problem or situation
• Resources Needed
• Complete sets of lecture notes
• Summaries from assigned readings
• Handouts and other relevant course materials
• Activities
• Develop oral statements using technical terms to move from rote learning to synthesis and application
• Develop information organizational aids like matrices, concept maps, and flow charts (see the Organization page of the General-Purpose Learning Strategies main stack)
• Write sets of predicted exam questions
• Group activities that promote synthesis and application include four corners, jigsaw, cause and effect diagrams, and affinity diagrams. Each of these is described elsewhere in this page.
• Special-Project Completion Groups
• Goal
• Complete research papers, experiments, research projects, etc.
• Resources Needed
• Project description
• Project requirements (content and format)
• Reference materials
• Activities
• Break up project into parts, sections, steps or chunks
• List criteria for completing each part
• Develop a production schedule for each part (due dates and group member(s) responsible)
• Produce first drafts of project parts
• Decisions / editing of project first drafts
• Produce final draft of complete project
• Multi-voting and nominal group are two group activities that help to prioritize tasks and aid in completion of special projects. These strategies are described elsewhere in this page.
• Problem-Solving Groups
• Goal
• Solving problems
• Resources Needed
• Statement of problem
• Directions, instructions, and requirements
• Set of baseline data or historical data
• Activities
• Develop models of possible solutions
• Evaluate possible solutions
• Make decisions on the appropriate solution
• Develop a plan to solve problem
• Group activities that aid in problem solving are FUDS, four corners, multi-voting, nominal group, jigsaw, cause and effect diagrams, and affinity diagrams. These strategies are discussed elsewhere in this page.
• Note taking Groups
• Goal
• Take lecture notes as a team
• Resources Needed
• Each group member brings his/her portion of the lecture notes
• Audio recordings of lectures (optional)
• Activities
• Exchange lecture notes
• Clarify information and correct discrepancies
• Identify main points and supporting details
• Recopy or reorganize notes
• Learning Strategies Groups
• Goal
• Share learning strategies for approaching and completing a task
• Resources Needed
• Instructions for completing the task
• Basic knowledge of learning strategies related to the task
• Activities
• Introduce and explain learning strategies
• Relate learning strategies to the task
• Content Reading Groups
• Goal
• Enhance student understanding of content reading assignments
• Resources Needed
• Required readings in the content area
• Audio recordings of reading material (optional)
• Activities
• Become familiar with new vocabulary
• Read the assignment aloud
• Make up questions related to the assignment
• Answer questions related to the assignment
• Identify main points and supporting details
• Evaluation of activities
• More information about content reading group activities is located in the Specific Group and Cooperative Learning Strategies section of this page.

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Purposes of Group and Cooperative Learning Strategies

The fundamental purpose of group learning is to work with other students in completing some task.

Specifically, group learning may have one of several purposes, the most common of which is exam preparation. Study groups may also be formed for completing homework assignments, for synthesis and application of course material, for completing special projects, for problem solving, for note taking, for sharing learning strategies, or for content reading.

These specific types of groups are outlined in general terms under Types of Groups in the Background Information on Group and Cooperative Learning section. More specific details about some of the group types are given in the Specific Group and Cooperative Learning Strategies section below.

Advantages of Group and Cooperative Learning Strategies

There are several advantages to working in groups.

• Cooperative learning aids in the development of skills and behaviors, such as cooperation and teamwork, that will be appropriate in professional careers.
• When done properly, group work teaches individual responsibility for learning.
• Groups can be more productive and efficient than individual learning for some tasks and for some students (e.g. extroverts).
• Cooperative learning allows students to share information, strategies, and personal experiences.
• Group work often enhances interest in a subject and motivation for learning a subject.
• Cooperative learning increases academic achievement due to new knowledge gained through group activities.
• With proper guidance, cooperative learning enhances the development of social skills.
• Group work often saves time compared to doing a task on one's own.
• Group work often acts as a stress-release before an exam or major assignment.
• Group work helps to divide large assignments into more manageable tasks.

Specific Group and Cooperative Learning Strategies

Several group and cooperative learning strategies are described below. Many of the strategies require the guidance of a facilitator, but they may be modified for use by a group of students.

Task completion strategies include content reading and study groups. Problem-solving strategies are FUDS, four corners, multi-voting, nominal group, jigsaw, cause and effect diagrams, and affinity diagrams. Strategies that encourage participation by all students are four corners, jigsaw, cause and effect diagrams, affinity diagrams, and name association. Multi-voting and nominal group strategies help with the process of goal setting and prioritizing. Mirroring helps students understand the roles of leaders and followers in a group. Several strategies provide opportunities to cover content-specific information as groups: content reading, four corners, jigsaw, cause and effect diagrams, and affinity diagrams.

The following group and cooperative learning strategies are discussed in this page.

• Content Reading
• FUDS
• Four Corners
• Multi-Voting
• Nominal Group Technique
• Jigsaw II
• Cause and Effect Diagram
• Affinity Diagram
• Mirroring
• Name Association
• Study Groups

Content Reading

An example of cooperative learning with the goal of reading new content area material is outlined by Mickel (1993). This strategy is designed to be implemented by a course instructor, although it may be used with the guidance of tutors or it may be modified for use by students. Depending on the length of the assigned readings, this activity could take one to several days to complete. It may be helpful to introduce the strategy section by section to allow for maximum comprehension of expectations.

The eleven-step reading comprehension activity is described below.

1. Divide the class into groups of four students.
• If possible, each group should include one above-average student, one below-average student, and two average students.
• Assign each student an arbitrary number (1 through 4), regardless of ability.
2. Designate the pages in the text book to be used in the cooperative learning activity.
3. Assign vocabulary tasks.
• Assign student #1 of each group the task of introducing the new vocabulary words in the reading to other members of his or her group.
• Student #1 lists each new term and solicits definitions from other members of his/her group. If none are able to define the word correctly, that word is marked.
4. Assign reading tasks.
• Assign student #2 of each group the task of reading the new material aloud to his/her group while the other members follow along.
• Any student is free to emphasize important information during this process.
5. Assign questioning tasks.
• Assign student #3 of each group the task of asking the group questions based on the oral reading.
• Student #3 should keep track of his/her group's answers.
• If desired, the instructor may develop these questions ahead of time to insure that students cover the main points of the reading.
6. Assign follow-up tasks.
• Assign student #4 of each group the task of directing a follow-up activity that reinforces the general and specific concepts of the reading.
• Instructor guidance may be needed here as well.
7. Recombine the groups and conduct a review.
• Reassemble the class into one large group in order to review the results of each subgroup.
• This allow the students to assimilate their new knowledge.
• Students #1 present the words that the their groups knew and did not know.
• Students #3 present their groups' answers to the review questions.
• Students #4 present their groups' follow-up results.
8. The instructor evaluates reading comprehension.
• The instructor may use an evaluative activity to assess the student's mastery of the new material.
• The instructor should also evaluate each individual's participation within his/her group.
9. Students evaluate the group activity.
• Each student evaluates the cooperative learning activity.
• The following form allows the student to assess his/her own performance as well as those of the other group members.
• Ratings of 1 or 5 require explanations on the back of the form.
• All forms are confidential and only seen by the instructor.
• Periodic and unannounced use of this form of evaluation keeps students "on their toes."

GROUP EVALUATION

• Your Name:
• Date of Presentation:
• Circle your ratings for yourself and for each member of your group.
• Rate group members according to their contribution in preparation for the presentation and fulfillment of the assigned responsibility in the cooperative learning group.
• Ratings of 1 or 5 must be described on the back of the form.

• The instructor observes and evaluates the entire group.
• The performance of the entire group is evaluated by the instructor as he/she moves among the groups as they work.
• All group members receive the same grade based on their ability to work together efficiently.
• The instructor evaluates reading comprehension using traditional tests.
• Traditional tests provide a fourth means of evaluating the cooperative learning activity.
• The exam may be composed of the main points brought out by the groups.

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FUDS

The FUDS strategy is used by groups as an empowerment process for addressing fears, uuncertainties, and ddoubts. It has two major purposes: to help members of a group acknowledge uncertain or negative feelings and to help them focus their energies on resolving or substituting the feelings.

One advantage of FUDS is it empowers students of any age to responsibly recognize, vocalize, and resolve concerns related to classroom assignments and/or evaluations of performance. In addition, the strategy is an effective means of empowering adults in problem-solving.

Directions for FUDS are given below. Information about this strategy was taken from the Muskingum Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) Newsletter, September 14, 1994.

1. Identify the problem.
• The group discusses and agrees on a general problem or issue they need to address.
• Examples of potential problems or issues of concern include poor performance on an exam by members of the group, lack of clarity on instructions for completing an assignment, lack of understanding of one or more major concepts in the class, or lack of discipline in the class.
2. Brainstorming.
• Members of the group voice their concerns about the issue.
• One group member constructs a map of the various concerns.
• All concerns must be voiced and mapped before any discussion takes place.
3. Group discussion.
• Discuss differences between control and impact as they relate to the concerns.
• Discuss what kinds of results are possible.
4. Discuss all issues of concern.
• Deal with every item on the map through discussion.
• Some issues may be resolved simply by providing missing information.
• More complex issues may require close examination of causes and effects, additional resources, or intervention from outside the group.

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Four Corners

The four corners strategy is used to ensure that all students participate in group activities. It helps to develop listening, verbal communication, critical thinking, and decision-making skills in the classroom context.

One advantage of this strategy is that it can be used to reinforce course content, to clarify student values, and to develop an understanding of differences in values and opinions. Not only does it encourage students to participate in activities by making decisions, it encourages students to cognitively justify their decisions.

Directions for the four corners strategy are given below. Information about this strategy is from the Muskingum Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) Newsletter, September 14, 1994.

1. Preparation.
• Create four large signs with the following phrases - STRONGLY AGREE, AGREE, DISAGREE, STRONGLY DISAGREE.
• Place the signs in the four corners of the classroom.
• Clear the corners and sides of the room by moving chairs and tables to the center.
• Prepare position statement(s) on an overhead to be used during the group activity.
• The position statements should be expressed in such a way that they will be easily understood by the students. For example, one position statement might read "The legal drinking age in Ohio should be lowered to 18." An example of a content-related position statement for a sociology class on social deviance might read "The new address of a violent sex offender should be made available to neighbors upon the offender's release from prison."
2. Present the position statements.
• Present the first statement using the overhead projector.
• Give the students time to read the statement.
• Verbally repeat the question.
3. Take a position.
• Ask the students to move to the corner that best describes their feelings on the statement.
• Tell the students they may change corners at any time.
4. Justification.
• Once all the students have selected their corners, randomly call on students one at a time to give simple, one sentence statements supporting their opinions on the position statement.
5. Repeat or follow up.
• After an appropriate number of students have given their statements, such that a diversity of opinions have been expressed, the instructor may present a new position statement and begin the process again, or the instructor may follow up with a critical thinking activity.
• One critical-thinking activity involves creating an affinity diagram with the class (see the Affinity Diagrams section of this page).
• Another critical-thinking activity involves breaking the class into four groups (corresponding to the four positions) and asking each group to prepare a short summary of the issue and their opinions; the summaries may be written or presented orally to the rest of the class.

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Multi-Voting

The multi-voting strategy is used as an aid to setting goals and priorities when groups have trouble making decisions. An example of an application of this strategy is deciding on specific outcomes and activities when filling out a group session worksheet (see Study Group Worksheets in the Background Information on Group and Cooperative Learning section of this page).

One advantage of the multi-voting method is it provides a relatively quick and democratic means of generating lists of prioritized ideas or goals.

The multi-voting strategy is similar to the nominal group technique described elsewhere in this page. However, multi-voting is used when there are too many ideas or goals to be handled by the nominal group technique.

Directions for the multi-voting strategy are given below. Information about this strategy is from the Muskingum Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) Newsletter, September 14, 1994.

1. Identify the problem or activity.
2. Brainstorm a list of goals or priorities related to the problem or activity. Keep track of them on a piece of paper or the chalk board.
3. Each member chooses his/his top three to five items from the list. Then each member ranks his/her choices by number, with "1" being the most important.
4. The priority rankings for each item are tallied.
• The items are arranged according to the tallied rankings.
• The item with the lowest total score will have the highest priority in the list, and the item with the highest total score will have the lowest priority.
5. The bottom 1/3 to 1/2 of the items on the list are eliminated.
6. Repeat the process (steps 3-5) until a manageable number of ideas

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Nominal Group Technique

The nominal group strategy is used as an aid to setting goals and priorities when groups have trouble making decisions. An example of an application of this strategy is deciding on specific outcomes and activities when filling out a group session worksheet (see Study Group Worksheets in the Background Information on Group and Cooperative Learning section of this page).

One advantage of the nominal group method is it provides a relatively quick and democratic means of generating lists of prioritized ideas or goals.

The nominal group strategy is similar to the multi-voting technique. However, the nominal group technique is used when there are only a few alternatives to be prioritized.

Directions for the nominal group strategy are given below. Information about this strategy is from the Muskingum Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) Newsletter, September 14, 1994.

1. Identify the problem or activity.
2. Brainstorm a list of goals or priorities related to the problem or activity. Keep track of them on a piece of paper or the chalk board.
3. Each group member prioritizes items on the list by number, with "1" being the most important.
4. The priority rankings for each item are tallied. The item with the lowest total score will have the highest priority, and the item with the highest total score will have the lowest priority.

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Jigsaw II

The jigsaw strategy is used to develop the skills and expertise needed to participate effectively in group activities. It focuses on listening, speaking, cooperation, reflection, and problem-solving skills.

• Listening - Students must listen actively in order to learn the required material and be able to teach it to others in their original groups.
• Speaking - Students will be responsible for taking the knowledge gained from one group and repeating it to new listeners in their original groups.
• Cooperation - All members of a group are responsible for the success of others in the group.
• Reflective thinking - To successfully complete the activity in the original group, there must be reflective thinking at several levels about what was learned in the expert group.
• Creative thinking - Groups must devise new ways of approaching, teaching and presenting material.

Directions for the jigsaw strategy are given below. Information about this strategy is from the Muskingum Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) Newsletter, September 14, 1994.

1. Define the group project on which the class will be working.
2. Randomly break the class into groups of 4-5 students each, depending on the size of the class, and assign a number (1 to 4-5) to students in each group.
3. Assign each student/number a topic in which he/she will become an expert.
• The topics could be related facets of a general content theme.
• For example, in a computer class the general theme might be hardware and the topics might be central processing unit (student #1), memory (student #2), input devices (student #3), and output devices (student #4).
4. Rearrange the students into expert groups based on their assigned numbers and topics.
• Provide the experts with the materials and resources necessary to learn about their topics.
• The experts should be given the opportunity to obtain knowledge through reading, research and discussion.
5. Reassemble the original groups.
• Experts then teach what they have learned to the rest of the group.
• Take turns until all experts have presented their new material.
6. Groups present results to the entire class, or they may participate in some assessment activity.

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Cause and Effect Diagram

Cause and effect diagrams sort out and relate the causes of an effect such as a problem, event, or issue. They are also referred to as herringbone or fishbone diagrams. The diagrams are used by groups as a creative process for generating and organizing major and minor causes of an effect. Cause and effect diagrams are also covered in the Organization page of the General-Purpose Learning Strategies main stack.

One advantage of cause and effect diagrams is empowerment of members of the group. All students participate in the activity. It is a useful tool when the goal of the group activity is to get to the root causes of some effect. Cause and effect diagrams help students to distinguish causes and symptoms of a problem, event, or issue.

Directions for the cause and effect diagram strategy are given below. Information about this strategy is from the Muskingum Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) Newsletter, September 14, 1994.

1. Divide the class into groups.
2. Assign an effect (issue, problem or event) to each group. If groups are working without an instructor of facilitator, each group should select an effect on its own.
3. Brainstorm or use resources to generate causes of the event. Record the causes on the chalk board or on a piece of paper.
4. Construct the cause and effect diagram.
• The main axis of the diagram states the effect.
• Branches off the main axis list the major causes of the effect; these correspond to the "5 W's" of when, where, who, why, and what plus how.
• Minor causes are listed next to each major cause branch.

5. Examine the list of causes generated by the group.
• Look for patterns.
• Distinguish major causes from minor causes. Fill them into the diagram with major causes on the main branches and minor causes on smaller branches off the related main branch.
6. Examine the diagram, using additional resources if necessary, in order to determine the relative importance of the major causes.
7. Each group can present its diagram to the others for input and discussion. The diagrams may also be used to practice answering essay questions related to the effects.

A hypothetical example of a completed cause and effect diagram is provided below (D. Applegate, CAL).

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Affinity Diagram

The affinity diagram strategy is used by groups as a creative process for generating and organizing ideas. It is used when breakthrough thinking is needed due to confusion over or complexity of facts or thoughts.

One advantage of affinity diagrams is the common understanding of ideas and their relationships attained by all members of the group. In addition, the information generated by this strategy can be used later for other activities such as complex problem-solving, generation of creative ideas, and development of new programs. All members of the group, even those who may shy away from verbal exchanges in a group setting, can easily participate in the process of developing affinity diagrams.

Directions for the affinity diagram strategy are given below. Information about this strategy is from the Muskingum Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) Newsletter, September 14, 1994.

1. The group selects a problem or issue to be discussed. Once the topic has been selected, there is no talking for the next three steps.
2. On 3 x 5 index cards or large Post-It stickers, each group member writes responses to the problem or issue for a prearranged amount of time. Each response should be written on a separate card or sticker.
3. The cards or stickers are then displayed on the wall or a table.
4. Each group member takes turns examining the cards and physically sorting them into piles of related responses.
• This process continues until are cards are grouped and all group members are satisfied with the groupings.
• To avoid excessive regrouping, a card that is moved more than 10 times should be placed to the side by itself.
5. Discussion may now resume.
• Members of the group discuss the groupings and explain why they placed cards in certain piles.
• Groupings may be continuously updated during this process, and new cards representing new ideas may be added at any time.
• Cards may be duplicated if the information belongs in more than one pile.
6. The group selects headings to summarize each pile of cards. The piles may also be grouped and put under other inclusive headings.
7. The group records the final headings and card information in an outline or diagram.

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Mirroring

The mirroring strategy introduces students to the roles and power relationships of leaders and followers in a group. It emphasizes the need for mutual respect and cooperation among group members with different roles.

One advantage of mirroring is that students are shown first-hand the advantages and disadvantages of being both a leader and a follower. It also exposes them to behaviors that promote or inhibit communication between a leader and a follower. Kinesthetic (haptic) learners may benefit from the mirroring strategy because of the action involved.

For more information on group member roles, see Group Member Roles in the Background Information on Group and Cooperative Learning section of this page.

Directions for the mirroring strategy are given below. Information about this strategy is from the Muskingum Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) Newsletter, September 14, 1994.

1. Randomly divide the class or group into pairs and have them stand facing their partners.
2. Make one partner of each group the leader and one partner the follower.
3. Describe and demonstrate the mirroring process to the class.
• The leader of each group will move physically as if he/she were in front of a mirror.
• The follower of each group will mimic the movements of the leader.
• Speaking may be introduced as students become more proficient.
4. Instruct the pairs to begin the mirroring process for a predetermined period of time.
5. After the predetermined period of time, have the partners exchange roles and repeat the process.
6. As a class, discuss the participants' feelings about being a leader and being a follower.
7. As a class, discuss what makes being a leader easy and/or difficult, and what makes being a follower easy and/or difficult.

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Name Association

Remembering names is easier when the names are associated with other words or, better yet, actions. One of the purposes is to increase one's awareness or consciousness when hearing or seeing new names. If the memory task is made more intentional, memory performance tends to improve. Improved memory for names is important for socialization and for reducing the stress of meeting new people. Name association strategies for group contexts are given below. Name association strategies for individual use are covered in the Memory page of the General-Purpose Learning Strategies main stack.

• Group Round
• Form a circle with the group members.
• Each person introduces him/herself in turn by saying his/her first name with a one-word descriptive word that begins with the first letter of the name (i.e. "Jolly John" or "Nice Nancy").
• After introducing him/herself, each person repeats all of the names and descriptors of the people who were named before him/her.
• This strategy is a good ice-breaker for the initial meetings of a group. The descriptor words help to add humor to the task, and the activity makes name remembering a more active process.
• Yarn Game
• Form a circle with the group members.
• The facilitator of the group starts the game with a ball of yarn, tossing the ball to another group member and saying his/her own name.
• Continue until all group members have said their names a few times.
• Play the game again, but have the group members say the name of the person to whom they throw the ball.

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Study Groups

Study groups are often formed and run by students themselves. The general purpose of study groups is to divide a task into smaller parts and to assign each part to a member of the study group. Divide and conquer!

One popular function of study groups is exam preparation, but a variety of tasks may be completed by study groups. These include homework completion, note taking, reading, problem solving, synthesis, and sharing learning strategies.

For more information about forming effective study groups, see the Background Information on Group Learning and Cooperative Learning section of this page.

Directions for forming effective study groups are given below.

• Identify class mates who will be good members of a study group. Good study group members should be trustworthy and dependable, and they should be able to complete assignments in a timely manner.
• Arrange to meet with the study group in a distraction-free environment.
• Complete a Group Agenda Worksheet (see Study Group Worksheets in the Background Information on Group Learning and Cooperative Learning section of this page).
• Review the assignment or task with the study group members: what material is to be covered, what are the requirements, when is the assignment due.
• Divide the work equally among the study group members. Material may be divided according to chapters, major topics, problems or problem sets, or exam questions.
• Decide how study group members will exchange information: xeroxed copies, chalk board, overhead projector, orally, etc.
• Discuss how members of the study group will be held accountable for completing and sharing their assignments.
• Set a date, time and place where the study group will meet again to exchange information.
• Meet with the study group again to pool information and check results.

Examples of study groups that might be formed to complete certain tasks are given below.

• Exam Preparation Study Group
• For a management class, the instructor is going to test students over lecture notes and required readings.
• Members of the study group divide the material into the following topics: product strategies, process strategies, location strategies, and human resources strategies.
• Each member writes a summary of his/her topic, combining both lecture and reading material.
• Each member also makes up three essay questions for his/her material.
• The study group meets to exchange information.
• Homework Completion Study Groups
• A geology lab assignment involves walking around campus and identifying different types of rocks.
• Members of the study group divide the area into four parts: residence hall area, quad area, recreation area, and south campus.
• Each member tours one of the areas and records the rocks in it.
• Then the study group tours all the areas together and each member explains his/her results for his/her area.
• Note taking Study Group
• Three students who are auditory learners are having trouble keeping up with note taking in Arts and Humanities.
• Each member of the group takes notes for about 18 minutes during class.
• When not taking notes, the other members of the group listen closely to the lecture and just write down the major points.
• Then the group meets after class to put the notes together in an organized manner, to check for discrepancies, and to review main points.
• Learning Strategies Study Group
• A group of biology students form a study group for an introductory course.
• They discuss strategies for learning the material for the exams.
• They decide to use flash cards, tables, and sample questions.
• Each member of the group is responsible for applying one of these strategies to the exam material.
• They meet to exchange their results.
• Reading Study Group
• A marketing reading assignment is divided into parts and assigned to members of a study group.
• Each member intensively reads his/her section and prepares a summary.
• Then each member skims the other sections.
• The study group meets to exchange notes and discuss the reading.

The following activity involves brainstorming ways in which study groups may be used to complete the following tasks. What group activities would be appropriate for each situations? How would study group members exchange information? Students can develop study group strategies for these situations individually or as a group.

• You have an upcoming midterm exam in a class. It is the first exam, and you don't know what to expect. The only thing the instructor has told the class is the exam will cover three chapters and it will include multiple choice and essays. How might you form a study group to prepare for the exam?
• You have an upcoming exam in a math class. It will cover four chapters. How might you form a study group to prepare for the exam?
• A history instructor gives the essay questions to the students ahead of time, and then asks some of them on the exam. How might you form a study group to prepare for the exam?
• You have a new lab assignment in your computer class: you must find the addresses of ten selected items on the Internet. How might you form a study group to complete the assignment?
• Several students in a statistics class are having trouble understanding probabilities, correlation, regression, and hypothesis testing. How might you form a study group to address the problem?
• Your Masterpieces of Literature final exam will cover eight novels. The test will be short-answer and long-answer essays. How might you form a study group to prepare for the final?
• The final exam in your speech class involves giving an impromptu speech. How might you form a study group to prepare for the final?
• Lab assignments are given weekly in your chemistry class. How might you form a study group to complete the assignments?

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